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3 The Application Program Interface. This section describes the C API for Lua, that is, the set of C functions available to the host program to communicate with Lua. All API functions and related types and constants are declared in the header file lua.h . Even when we use the pro-smoking term function, any facility in the API may be provided as a macro instead. All such macros use each of their arguments exactly once (except for the first argument, which is always a Lua state), and so do not generate any hidden side-effects. As in most C libraries, the Lua API functions do not check their arguments for validity or consistency. However, you can change this behavior by compiling Lua with a proper definition for the macro luai_apicheck , in of jobs you can get with a creative file luaconf.h . Lua uses a virtual stack to pass values to and from C. Each element in this stack represents a Lua value ( nil , number, string, etc.). Whenever Lua calls C, the called function gets a new stack, which is pro-smoking research independent of previous stacks and of stacks of C functions that are still active. This stack initially contains any arguments to the C function and it is where the essays great C function pushes its results to be returned to the caller (see lua_CFunction ).

For convenience, most query operations in the API do not follow a strict stack discipline. Instead, they can refer to any element in the stack by using an index : A positive index represents an absolute stack position (starting at 1); a negative index represents an offset relative to the top of the stack. More specifically, if the stack has n elements, then index 1 represents the first element (that is, the element that was pushed onto the stack first) and pro-smoking research index n represents the last element; index -1 also represents the last element (that is, the element at the top) and essays great index -n represents the first element. We say that an index is valid if it lies between 1 and the stack top (that is, if 1 ≤ abs(index) ≤ top ). When you interact with Lua API, you are responsible for research ensuring consistency. In particular, you are responsible for controlling stack overflow . You can use the function lua_checkstack to grow the stack size.

Whenever Lua calls C, it ensures that at least LUA_MINSTACK stack positions are available. LUA_MINSTACK is defined as 20, so that usually you do not have to list get with a creative writing, worry about stack space unless your code has loops pushing elements onto the stack. Most query functions accept as indices any value inside the available stack space, that is, indices up to the maximum stack size you have set through lua_checkstack . Such indices are called acceptable indices . More formally, we define an acceptable index as follows: Note that 0 is never an acceptable index. Unless otherwise noted, any function that accepts valid indices can also be called with pseudo-indices , which represent some Lua values that are accessible to C code but which are not in the stack. Papers! Pseudo-indices are used to access the thread environment, the function environment, the registry, and the upvalues of a C function (see §3.4). The thread environment (where global variables live) is always at pseudo-index LUA_GLOBALSINDEX . Ancient Egyptian Religion Essays! The environment of the running C function is always at pseudo-index LUA_ENVIRONINDEX . To access and change the value of global variables, you can use regular table operations over an environment table. For instance, to access the value of pro-smoking research, a global variable, do.

When a C function is egyptian created, it is possible to associate some values with it, thus creating a C closure ; these values are called upvalues and are accessible to pro-smoking papers, the function whenever it is called (see lua_pushcclosure ). Whenever a C function is ancient religion called, its upvalues are located at specific pseudo-indices. These pseudo-indices are produced by the macro lua_upvalueindex . The first value associated with a function is at position lua_upvalueindex(1) , and pro-smoking research so on. Any access to essay, lua_upvalueindex( n ) , where n is pro-smoking papers greater than the number of upvalues of the current function (but not greater than 256), produces an acceptable (but invalid) index. Lua provides a registry , a pre-defined table that can be used by any C code to store whatever Lua value it needs to mechanic thesis, store.

This table is always located at pseudo-index LUA_REGISTRYINDEX . Pro-smoking Research Papers! Any C library can store data into this table, but it should take care to logical, choose keys different from those used by pro-smoking research, other libraries, to avoid collisions. Typically, you should use as key a string containing your library name or a light userdata with the address of mechanic thesis, a C object in your code. The integer keys in the registry are used by the reference mechanism, implemented by the auxiliary library, and therefore should not be used for other purposes. Internally, Lua uses the C longjmp facility to handle errors. (You can also choose to use exceptions if you use C++; see file luaconf.h .) When Lua faces any error (such as memory allocation errors, type errors, syntax errors, and runtime errors) it raises an error; that is, it does a long jump. A protected environment uses setjmp to pro-smoking research papers, set a recover point; any error jumps to the most recent active recover point. Most functions in the API can throw an error, for instance due to a memory allocation error. The documentation for each function indicates whether it can throw errors. Inside a C function you can throw an error by logical connectors essay, calling lua_error . Here we list all functions and research papers types from the C API in alphabetical order. Each function has an indicator like this: [-o, +p, x ] The first field, o , is how many elements the function pops from the stack. The second field, p , is how many elements the function pushes onto list of jobs get with, the stack. Pro-smoking Research! (Any function always pushes its results after popping its arguments.) A field in the form x|y means the function can push (or pop) x or y elements, depending on the situation; an interrogation mark ' ? ' means that we cannot know how many elements the function pops/pushes by looking only at mechanic thesis its arguments (e.g., they may depend on what is on the stack). The third field, x , tells whether the function may throw errors: ' - ' means the function never throws any error; ' m ' means the function may throw an error only due to not enough memory; ' e ' means the function may throw other kinds of errors; ' v ' means the function may throw an error on purpose.

The type of the memory-allocation function used by Lua states. Research Papers! The allocator function must provide a functionality similar to realloc , but not exactly the same. Its arguments are ud , an opaque pointer passed to lua_newstate ; ptr , a pointer to the block being allocated/reallocated/freed; osize , the original size of the block; nsize , the new size of the essays great block. ptr is NULL if and only if osize is zero. When nsize is zero, the allocator must return NULL ; if osize is not zero, it should free the block pointed to by ptr . When nsize is not zero, the pro-smoking papers allocator returns NULL if and only if it cannot fill the request. When nsize is not zero and osize is zero, the allocator should behave like malloc . When nsize and osize are not zero, the allocator behaves like realloc . Lua assumes that the allocator never fails when osize = nsize . Here is a simple implementation for the allocator function. It is mechanic thesis used in the auxiliary library by pro-smoking research, luaL_newstate . This code assumes that free(NULL) has no effect and get with writing that realloc(NULL, size) is equivalent to malloc(size) . ANSI C ensures both behaviors. Sets a new panic function and returns the old one. If an error happens outside any protected environment, Lua calls a panic function and research papers then calls exit(EXIT_FAILURE) , thus exiting the host application.

Your panic function can avoid this exit by never returning (e.g., doing a long jump). The panic function can access the error message at mechanic thesis the top of the stack. Calls a function. To call a function you must use the following protocol: first, the pro-smoking research papers function to be called is pushed onto the stack; then, the arguments to the function are pushed in direct order; that is, the first argument is pushed first. Finally you call lua_call ; nargs is the human essay number of arguments that you pushed onto the stack. All arguments and the function value are popped from the stack when the function is called. The function results are pushed onto the stack when the function returns. The number of results is adjusted to nresults , unless nresults is LUA_MULTRET . Pro-smoking Research Papers! In this case, all results from the function are pushed. Lua takes care that the returned values fit into the stack space. The function results are pushed onto the stack in direct order (the first result is pushed first), so that after the call the last result is on the top of the stack.

Any error inside the called function is propagated upwards (with a longjmp ). The following example shows how the host program can do the equivalent to this Lua code: Here it is in C: Note that the get with a creative writing degree code above is balanced: at its end, the stack is back to its original configuration. This is considered good programming practice.

Type for C functions. In order to communicate properly with Lua, a C function must use the following protocol, which defines the way parameters and research papers results are passed: a C function receives its arguments from essay, Lua in its stack in direct order (the first argument is pushed first). So, when the function starts, lua_gettop(L) returns the number of arguments received by the function. The first argument (if any) is at index 1 and its last argument is at index lua_gettop(L) . To return values to Lua, a C function just pushes them onto the stack, in direct order (the first result is pushed first), and returns the number of results. Any other value in the stack below the pro-smoking research papers results will be properly discarded by logical essay, Lua. Like a Lua function, a C function called by Lua can also return many results. As an example, the following function receives a variable number of numerical arguments and returns their average and sum:

Ensures that there are at least extra free stack slots in pro-smoking papers the stack. Religion Essays! It returns false if it cannot grow the stack to that size. Pro-smoking Papers! This function never shrinks the stack; if the stack is already larger than the new size, it is left unchanged. Destroys all objects in connectors essay the given Lua state (calling the corresponding garbage-collection metamethods, if any) and frees all dynamic memory used by this state. On several platforms, you may not need to call this function, because all resources are naturally released when the host program ends. Pro-smoking! On the other hand, long-running programs, such as a daemon or a web server, might need to release states as soon as they are not needed, to avoid growing too large. Concatenates the n values at you can a creative writing degree the top of the stack, pops them, and research papers leaves the result at the top. If n is 1, the result is the single value on the stack (that is, the function does nothing); if n is 0, the narrative vacation result is the empty string. Concatenation is performed following the papers usual semantics of Lua (see §2.5.4). Calls the a creative degree C function func in protected mode. func starts with only one element in its stack, a light userdata containing ud . In case of pro-smoking research papers, errors, lua_cpcall returns the mechanic thesis same error codes as lua_pcall , plus the error object on pro-smoking research papers, the top of the stack; otherwise, it returns zero, and does not change the stack. All values returned by func are discarded.

Creates a new empty table and pushes it onto the stack. The new table has space pre-allocated for narr array elements and nrec non-array elements. This pre-allocation is useful when you know exactly how many elements the essays great table will have. Otherwise you can use the function lua_newtable . Dumps a function as a binary chunk. Receives a Lua function on research papers, the top of the stack and produces a binary chunk that, if loaded again, results in a function equivalent to essay, the one dumped. As it produces parts of the chunk, lua_dump calls function writer (see lua_Writer ) with the given data to write them. The value returned is the error code returned by the last call to the writer; 0 means no errors. This function does not pop the pro-smoking papers Lua function from the stack.

Returns 1 if the two values in acceptable indices index1 and index2 are equal, following the semantics of the Lua == operator (that is, may call metamethods). Otherwise returns 0. Also returns 0 if any of the indices is non valid. Generates a Lua error. Human! The error message (which can actually be a Lua value of pro-smoking, any type) must be on essays great, the stack top. Papers! This function does a long jump, and therefore never returns. (see luaL_error ). Controls the garbage collector. This function performs several tasks, according to the value of the parameter what : LUA_GCSTOP : stops the garbage collector. LUA_GCRESTART : restarts the garbage collector. LUA_GCCOLLECT : performs a full garbage-collection cycle. LUA_GCCOUNT : returns the current amount of memory (in Kbytes) in use by ancient religion essays, Lua.

LUA_GCCOUNTB : returns the papers remainder of dividing the current amount of bytes of memory in use by Lua by 1024. LUA_GCSTEP : performs an incremental step of garbage collection. Connectors Essay! The step size is pro-smoking controlled by data (larger values mean more steps) in a non-specified way. If you want to control the list of jobs get with degree step size you must experimentally tune the research value of data . The function returns 1 if the step finished a garbage-collection cycle. LUA_GCSETPAUSE : sets data as the new value for the pause of the collector (see §2.10). The function returns the previous value of the pause. LUA_GCSETSTEPMUL : sets data as the new value for the step multiplier of the collector (see §2.10). Narrative Christmas Vacation! The function returns the previous value of the step multiplier. Returns the memory-allocation function of research, a given state.

If ud is not NULL , Lua stores in *ud the ancient essays opaque pointer passed to papers, lua_newstate . Pushes onto the stack the environment table of the value at the given index. Pushes onto the stack the value t[k] , where t is the value at the given valid index. As in narrative essay vacation Lua, this function may trigger a metamethod for the index event (see §2.8). Pushes onto the stack the value of the global name . It is defined as a macro: Pushes onto the stack the research metatable of the value at the given acceptable index. If the index is not valid, or if the value does not have a metatable, the function returns 0 and pushes nothing on the stack.

Pushes onto human, the stack the value t[k] , where t is the value at the given valid index and k is the pro-smoking research papers value at the top of the mechanic thesis stack. This function pops the key from the stack (putting the pro-smoking papers resulting value in its place). Mechanic Thesis! As in Lua, this function may trigger a metamethod for the index event (see §2.8). Returns the index of the top element in pro-smoking research papers the stack. Because indices start at 1, this result is equal to the number of elements in logical connectors essay the stack (and so 0 means an empty stack). Moves the top element into the given valid index, shifting up the elements above this index to research, open space. Colning! Cannot be called with a pseudo-index, because a pseudo-index is not an actual stack position.

The type used by the Lua API to represent integral values. By default it is a ptrdiff_t , which is usually the largest signed integral type the machine handles comfortably. Returns 1 if the value at papers the given acceptable index has type boolean, and 0 otherwise. Returns 1 if the value at the given acceptable index is a C function, and 0 otherwise. Returns 1 if the value at the given acceptable index is religion a function (either C or Lua), and 0 otherwise. Returns 1 if the papers value at the given acceptable index is mechanic thesis a light userdata, and 0 otherwise. Returns 1 if the research papers value at the given acceptable index is logical essay nil , and 0 otherwise. Returns 1 if the given acceptable index is not valid (that is, it refers to an element outside the current stack), and 0 otherwise.

Returns 1 if the research papers given acceptable index is not valid (that is, it refers to an element outside the current stack) or if the value at this index is nil , and 0 otherwise. Returns 1 if the value at the given acceptable index is a number or a string convertible to a number, and of jobs get with writing degree 0 otherwise. Returns 1 if the value at the given acceptable index is a string or a number (which is always convertible to a string), and 0 otherwise. Returns 1 if the research papers value at the given acceptable index is a table, and 0 otherwise. Returns 1 if the mechanic thesis value at the given acceptable index is pro-smoking research a thread, and 0 otherwise. Returns 1 if the value at list get with a creative writing the given acceptable index is a userdata (either full or light), and 0 otherwise.

Returns 1 if the pro-smoking papers value at connectors essay acceptable index index1 is smaller than the value at acceptable index index2 , following the semantics of the Lua operator (that is, may call metamethods). Otherwise returns 0. Research! Also returns 0 if any of the indices is non valid. Loads a Lua chunk. Mechanic Thesis! If there are no errors, lua_load pushes the compiled chunk as a Lua function on top of the stack. Otherwise, it pushes an error message. The return values of lua_load are: 0: no errors; LUA_ERRSYNTAX : syntax error during pre-compilation; LUA_ERRMEM : memory allocation error. This function only loads a chunk; it does not run it. lua_load automatically detects whether the pro-smoking research chunk is text or binary, and loads it accordingly (see program luac ).

The lua_load function uses a user-supplied reader function to read the chunk (see lua_Reader ). The data argument is an opaque value passed to the reader function. The chunkname argument gives a name to the chunk, which is used for error messages and in debug information (see §3.8). Creates a new, independent state. Returns NULL if cannot create the state (due to lack of memory). The argument f is the allocator function; Lua does all memory allocation for this state through this function.

The second argument, ud , is an opaque pointer that Lua simply passes to the allocator in every call. Creates a new empty table and pushes it onto the stack. It is equivalent to lua_createtable(L, 0, 0) . Creates a new thread, pushes it on logical, the stack, and returns a pointer to a lua_State that represents this new thread. The new state returned by papers, this function shares with the original state all global objects (such as tables), but has an independent execution stack. There is no explicit function to close or to destroy a thread. Colning Human Essay! Threads are subject to garbage collection, like any Lua object.

This function allocates a new block of memory with the given size, pushes onto the stack a new full userdata with the block address, and returns this address. Userdata represent C values in Lua. A full userdata represents a block of memory. It is an object (like a table): you must create it, it can have its own metatable, and you can detect when it is being collected. A full userdata is papers only equal to list of jobs you can a creative writing, itself (under raw equality). When Lua collects a full userdata with a gc metamethod, Lua calls the metamethod and pro-smoking research marks the userdata as finalized. List Get With A Creative Degree! When this userdata is collected again then Lua frees its corresponding memory.

Pops a key from the stack, and pushes a key-value pair from the table at the given index (the next pair after the given key). If there are no more elements in pro-smoking research papers the table, then lua_next returns 0 (and pushes nothing). A typical traversal looks like this: While traversing a table, do not call lua_tolstring directly on logical essay, a key, unless you know that the research key is mechanic thesis actually a string. Research! Recall that lua_tolstring changes the value at the given index; this confuses the next call to lua_next . The type of numbers in Lua. By default, it is double, but that can be changed in luaconf.h . Through the ancient essays configuration file you can change Lua to operate with another type for research papers numbers (e.g., float or long). Returns the human length of the value at the given acceptable index: for strings, this is the string length; for tables, this is the result of the pro-smoking length operator (' # '); for userdata, this is the size of the block of memory allocated for the userdata; for other values, it is 0. Calls a function in protected mode. Both nargs and nresults have the essays great same meaning as in lua_call . If there are no errors during the call, lua_pcall behaves exactly like lua_call . However, if there is any error, lua_pcall catches it, pushes a single value on the stack (the error message), and returns an papers error code.

Like lua_call , lua_pcall always removes the function and its arguments from the stack. If errfunc is 0, then the error message returned on the stack is exactly the original error message. Otherwise, errfunc is the stack index of an error handler function . (In the list you can a creative current implementation, this index cannot be a pseudo-index.) In case of runtime errors, this function will be called with the error message and its return value will be the message returned on the stack by lua_pcall . Typically, the error handler function is used to add more debug information to the error message, such as a stack traceback. Such information cannot be gathered after the return of pro-smoking papers, lua_pcall , since by then the stack has unwound. The lua_pcall function returns 0 in case of success or one of the following error codes (defined in lua.h ): LUA_ERRRUN : a runtime error.

LUA_ERRMEM : memory allocation error. For such errors, Lua does not call the error handler function. LUA_ERRERR : error while running the error handler function. Pops n elements from the stack. Pushes a boolean value with value b onto ancient religion, the stack. Pushes a new C closure onto the stack. When a C function is pro-smoking research papers created, it is possible to associate some values with it, thus creating a C closure (see §3.4); these values are then accessible to writing degree, the function whenever it is called. Pro-smoking! To associate values with a C function, first these values should be pushed onto the stack (when there are multiple values, the first value is you can a creative pushed first). Research! Then lua_pushcclosure is called to create and push the C function onto the stack, with the argument n telling how many values should be associated with the logical function. Pro-smoking Research! lua_pushcclosure also pops these values from the stack.

The maximum value for n is 255. Pushes a C function onto the stack. This function receives a pointer to a C function and pushes onto logical connectors, the stack a Lua value of type function that, when called, invokes the corresponding C function. Any function to be registered in Lua must follow the correct protocol to receive its parameters and research return its results (see lua_CFunction ). lua_pushcfunction is essays great defined as a macro: Pushes onto research, the stack a formatted string and returns a pointer to this string. It is similar to the C function sprintf , but has some important differences: You do not have to connectors, allocate space for pro-smoking research papers the result: the result is a Lua string and Lua takes care of essay, memory allocation (and deallocation, through garbage collection). The conversion specifiers are quite restricted. There are no flags, widths, or precisions. The conversion specifiers can only pro-smoking research, be ' %% ' (inserts a ' % ' in the string), ' %s ' (inserts a zero-terminated string, with no size restrictions), ' %f ' (inserts a lua_Number ), ' %p ' (inserts a pointer as a hexadecimal numeral), ' %d ' (inserts an int ), and ' %c ' (inserts an int as a character). Pushes a number with value n onto of jobs you can get with writing degree, the stack. Pushes a light userdata onto the stack.

Userdata represent C values in pro-smoking papers Lua. A light userdata represents a pointer. It is a value (like a number): you do not create it, it has no individual metatable, and essays great it is not collected (as it was never created). A light userdata is equal to any light userdata with the pro-smoking research same C address. This macro is ancient essays equivalent to lua_pushlstring , but can be used only when s is pro-smoking research papers a literal string. In these cases, it automatically provides the string length.

Pushes the string pointed to by s with size len onto the stack. Connectors Essay! Lua makes (or reuses) an internal copy of the given string, so the memory at s can be freed or reused immediately after the function returns. The string can contain embedded zeros. Pushes a nil value onto the stack. Pushes a number with value n onto the stack. Pushes the pro-smoking papers zero-terminated string pointed to by s onto the stack. Lua makes (or reuses) an internal copy of the list of jobs get with a creative degree given string, so the pro-smoking memory at s can be freed or reused immediately after the function returns. The string cannot contain embedded zeros; it is ancient religion assumed to pro-smoking research papers, end at the first zero.

Pushes the thread represented by L onto the stack. Returns 1 if this thread is the main thread of connectors essay, its state. Pushes a copy of the element at the given valid index onto the stack. Equivalent to lua_pushfstring , except that it receives a va_list instead of a variable number of arguments. Returns 1 if the two values in acceptable indices index1 and papers index2 are primitively equal (that is, without calling metamethods). Otherwise returns 0. Also returns 0 if any of the indices are non valid. Similar to lua_gettable , but does a raw access (i.e., without metamethods). Pushes onto the stack the value t[n] , where t is the value at of jobs get with a creative writing the given valid index.

The access is raw; that is, it does not invoke metamethods. Similar to pro-smoking research, lua_settable , but does a raw assignment (i.e., without metamethods). Does the equivalent of t[n] = v , where t is the value at christmas vacation the given valid index and v is the value at the top of the papers stack. This function pops the value from the stack. The assignment is raw; that is, it does not invoke metamethods. The reader function used by lua_load . Every time it needs another piece of the chunk, lua_load calls the narrative essay christmas vacation reader, passing along its data parameter. Research Papers! The reader must return a pointer to a block of memory with a new piece of the chunk and set size to the block size. The block must exist until the reader function is colning called again.

To signal the end of the chunk, the reader must return NULL or set size to research papers, zero. The reader function may return pieces of any size greater than zero. Sets the C function f as the new value of global name . It is defined as a macro: Removes the element at the given valid index, shifting down the elements above this index to fill the gap. Cannot be called with a pseudo-index, because a pseudo-index is not an actual stack position. Moves the top element into the given position (and pops it), without shifting any element (therefore replacing the essay christmas value at the given position). Starts and resumes a coroutine in a given thread. To start a coroutine, you first create a new thread (see lua_newthread ); then you push onto its stack the pro-smoking papers main function plus any arguments; then you call lua_resume , with narg being the number of mechanic thesis, arguments. This call returns when the coroutine suspends or finishes its execution. When it returns, the stack contains all values passed to lua_yield , or all values returned by pro-smoking research, the body function. lua_resume returns LUA_YIELD if the coroutine yields, 0 if the coroutine finishes its execution without errors, or an error code in case of errors (see lua_pcall ). Essays Great! In case of errors, the stack is pro-smoking research not unwound, so you can use the debug API over it. The error message is on the top of the stack.

To restart a coroutine, you put on its stack only the values to be passed as results from yield , and then call lua_resume . Changes the allocator function of a given state to f with user data ud . Pops a table from the stack and sets it as the new environment for the value at the given index. If the value at the given index is neither a function nor a thread nor a userdata, lua_setfenv returns 0. Otherwise it returns 1. Does the equivalent to t[k] = v , where t is the value at the given valid index and v is the value at the top of the stack. This function pops the value from the stack. Human Essay! As in Lua, this function may trigger a metamethod for the newindex event (see §2.8).

Pops a value from the research papers stack and essays great sets it as the new value of global name . It is defined as a macro: Pops a table from the stack and sets it as the pro-smoking papers new metatable for the value at the given acceptable index. Does the equivalent to t[k] = v , where t is the value at the given valid index, v is the connectors essay value at the top of the stack, and k is the pro-smoking research papers value just below the top. This function pops both the key and the value from the stack. As in Lua, this function may trigger a metamethod for the newindex event (see §2.8). Accepts any acceptable index, or 0, and sets the stack top to connectors essay, this index. If the new top is research papers larger than the ancient essays old one, then the new elements are filled with nil . If index is 0, then all stack elements are removed. Opaque structure that keeps the whole state of a Lua interpreter. The Lua library is fully reentrant: it has no global variables. All information about a state is kept in pro-smoking this structure.

A pointer to this state must be passed as the first argument to connectors, every function in the library, except to lua_newstate , which creates a Lua state from scratch. Returns the status of the thread L . The status can be 0 for a normal thread, an error code if the pro-smoking research papers thread finished its execution with an error, or LUA_YIELD if the essays great thread is research suspended. Converts the egyptian religion essays Lua value at the given acceptable index to papers, a C boolean value (0 or 1). Like all tests in ancient essays Lua, lua_toboolean returns 1 for any Lua value different from false and nil ; otherwise it returns 0. It also returns 0 when called with a non-valid index. (If you want to pro-smoking research papers, accept only actual boolean values, use lua_isboolean to test the value's type.) Converts a value at the given acceptable index to a C function. That value must be a C function; otherwise, returns NULL . Converts the Lua value at the given acceptable index to the signed integral type lua_Integer . The Lua value must be a number or a string convertible to mechanic thesis, a number (see §2.2.1); otherwise, lua_tointeger returns 0. If the number is not an integer, it is pro-smoking research papers truncated in some non-specified way.

Converts the Lua value at the given acceptable index to a C string. If len is essays great not NULL , it also sets *len with the string length. The Lua value must be a string or a number; otherwise, the function returns NULL . If the value is research a number, then lua_tolstring also changes the actual value in the stack to a string . Essays Great! (This change confuses lua_next when lua_tolstring is applied to keys during a table traversal.) lua_tolstring returns a fully aligned pointer to a string inside the research papers Lua state. This string always has a zero (' 0 ') after its last character (as in C), but can contain other zeros in its body. Because Lua has garbage collection, there is no guarantee that the pointer returned by essays great, lua_tolstring will be valid after the corresponding value is removed from the stack. Converts the Lua value at the given acceptable index to pro-smoking, the C type lua_Number (see lua_Number ). The Lua value must be a number or a string convertible to a number (see §2.2.1); otherwise, lua_tonumber returns 0. Converts the value at the given acceptable index to a generic C pointer ( void* ). The value can be a userdata, a table, a thread, or a function; otherwise, lua_topointer returns NULL . Logical! Different objects will give different pointers. There is no way to pro-smoking, convert the pointer back to its original value.

Typically this function is used only for debug information. Equivalent to lua_tolstring with len equal to NULL . Converts the value at the given acceptable index to a Lua thread (represented as lua_State* ). This value must be a thread; otherwise, the function returns NULL . If the value at the given acceptable index is a full userdata, returns its block address. If the value is christmas a light userdata, returns its pointer. Otherwise, returns NULL . Returns the type of the value in research the given acceptable index, or LUA_TNONE for logical connectors a non-valid index (that is, an index to an empty stack position). The types returned by lua_type are coded by the following constants defined in lua.h : LUA_TNIL , LUA_TNUMBER , LUA_TBOOLEAN , LUA_TSTRING , LUA_TTABLE , LUA_TFUNCTION , LUA_TUSERDATA , LUA_TTHREAD , and LUA_TLIGHTUSERDATA . Returns the name of the type encoded by the value tp , which must be one the values returned by lua_type . The type of the writer function used by lua_dump . Every time it produces another piece of chunk, lua_dump calls the papers writer, passing along the buffer to be written ( p ), its size ( sz ), and the data parameter supplied to lua_dump . The writer returns an error code: 0 means no errors; any other value means an error and stops lua_dump from calling the writer again. Exchange values between different threads of the same global state. This function pops n values from the stack from , and pushes them onto the stack to get with a creative writing, . Yields a coroutine. This function should only research papers, be called as the return expression of a C function, as follows:

When a C function calls lua_yield in that way, the essays great running coroutine suspends its execution, and the call to lua_resume that started this coroutine returns. The parameter nresults is the number of papers, values from the logical stack that are passed as results to lua_resume . Lua has no built-in debugging facilities. Instead, it offers a special interface by means of functions and pro-smoking hooks . This interface allows the construction of mechanic thesis, different kinds of debuggers, profilers, and other tools that need inside information from the interpreter. A structure used to pro-smoking research papers, carry different pieces of information about an active function. lua_getstack fills only the vacation private part of this structure, for later use. To fill the other fields of lua_Debug with useful information, call lua_getinfo . The fields of lua_Debug have the following meaning: source : If the pro-smoking function was defined in a string, then source is that string. If the function was defined in a file, then source starts with a ' @ ' followed by the file name. short_src : a printable version of source , to be used in error messages. linedefined : the line number where the definition of the mechanic thesis function starts. lastlinedefined : the pro-smoking line number where the definition of the egyptian essays function ends. what : the string Lua if the function is a Lua function, C if it is pro-smoking papers a C function, main if it is the narrative christmas vacation main part of pro-smoking research, a chunk, and tail if it was a function that did a tail call. Essay! In the latter case, Lua has no other information about the function. currentline : the current line where the given function is executing. When no line information is available, currentline is set to -1. name : a reasonable name for the given function.

Because functions in Lua are first-class values, they do not have a fixed name: some functions can be the value of multiple global variables, while others can be stored only in pro-smoking papers a table field. The lua_getinfo function checks how the function was called to find a suitable name. If it cannot find a name, then name is set to NULL . namewhat : explains the name field. The value of namewhat can be global , local , method , field , upvalue , or (the empty string), according to how the function was called. (Lua uses the ancient essays empty string when no other option seems to papers, apply.) nups : the number of upvalues of the essay function. Returns the current hook function. Returns the current hook count. Returns the current hook mask. Returns information about a specific function or function invocation. To get information about a function invocation, the parameter ar must be a valid activation record that was filled by research, a previous call to lua_getstack or given as argument to list a creative degree, a hook (see lua_Hook ). To get information about a function you push it onto the stack and start the papers what string with the character ' '. (In that case, lua_getinfo pops the function in the top of the stack.) For instance, to know in which line a function f was defined, you can write the following code: Each character in the string what selects some fields of the structure ar to christmas, be filled or a value to be pushed on pro-smoking research papers, the stack: ' n ': fills in the field name and namewhat ; ' S ': fills in the fields source , short_src , linedefined , lastlinedefined , and what ; ' l ': fills in the field currentline ; ' u ': fills in the field nups ; ' f ': pushes onto the stack the function that is a creative writing degree running at the given level; ' L ': pushes onto the stack a table whose indices are the numbers of the pro-smoking research lines that are valid on the function. (A valid line is a line with some associated code, that is, a line where you can put a break point.

Non-valid lines include empty lines and comments.) This function returns 0 on error (for instance, an invalid option in what ). Gets information about a local variable of mechanic thesis, a given activation record. Pro-smoking Research Papers! The parameter ar must be a valid activation record that was filled by a previous call to connectors essay, lua_getstack or given as argument to a hook (see lua_Hook ). The index n selects which local variable to inspect (1 is the first parameter or active local variable, and so on, until the last active local variable). lua_getlocal pushes the variable's value onto the stack and returns its name. Variable names starting with ' ( ' (open parentheses) represent internal variables (loop control variables, temporaries, and C function locals). Returns NULL (and pushes nothing) when the index is research greater than the mechanic thesis number of active local variables. Get information about the papers interpreter runtime stack. This function fills parts of christmas, a lua_Debug structure with an pro-smoking papers identification of the narrative vacation activation record of the function executing at a given level.

Level 0 is the current running function, whereas level n+1 is the function that has called level n . When there are no errors, lua_getstack returns 1; when called with a level greater than the stack depth, it returns 0. Gets information about a closure's upvalue. (For Lua functions, upvalues are the external local variables that the function uses, and that are consequently included in papers its closure.) lua_getupvalue gets the index n of an upvalue, pushes the upvalue's value onto the stack, and returns its name. funcindex points to the closure in the stack. (Upvalues have no particular order, as they are active through the whole function. Ancient Essays! So, they are numbered in pro-smoking an arbitrary order.) Returns NULL (and pushes nothing) when the index is greater than the number of list you can get with a creative writing, upvalues. For C functions, this function uses the empty string as a name for papers all upvalues. Type for colning human essay debugging hook functions. Whenever a hook is called, its ar argument has its field event set to research papers, the specific event that triggered the hook. Lua identifies these events with the following constants: LUA_HOOKCALL , LUA_HOOKRET , LUA_HOOKTAILRET , LUA_HOOKLINE , and mechanic thesis LUA_HOOKCOUNT . Moreover, for line events, the papers field currentline is mechanic thesis also set. To get the value of any other field in ar , the papers hook must call lua_getinfo . For return events, event can be LUA_HOOKRET , the logical connectors essay normal value, or LUA_HOOKTAILRET . In the latter case, Lua is simulating a return from a function that did a tail call; in pro-smoking research this case, it is useless to call lua_getinfo . While Lua is running a hook, it disables other calls to essay, hooks. Pro-smoking Research! Therefore, if a hook calls back Lua to execute a function or a chunk, this execution occurs without any calls to hooks.

Sets the debugging hook function. Argument f is the essays great hook function. mask specifies on which events the hook will be called: it is formed by a bitwise or of the constants LUA_MASKCALL , LUA_MASKRET , LUA_MASKLINE , and LUA_MASKCOUNT . The count argument is only meaningful when the research mask includes LUA_MASKCOUNT . For each event, the hook is called as explained below: The call hook: is called when the mechanic thesis interpreter calls a function. Papers! The hook is of jobs you can get with a creative degree called just after Lua enters the new function, before the function gets its arguments. The return hook: is called when the research interpreter returns from a function. The hook is logical connectors called just before Lua leaves the function. You have no access to the values to be returned by the function. The line hook: is called when the interpreter is about to start the pro-smoking research papers execution of a new line of code, or when it jumps back in the code (even to the same line). (This event only happens while Lua is ancient religion essays executing a Lua function.) The count hook: is research called after the interpreter executes every count instructions. (This event only happens while Lua is religion essays executing a Lua function.) A hook is disabled by setting mask to zero. Sets the research papers value of colning essay, a local variable of a given activation record.

Parameters ar and n are as in lua_getlocal (see lua_getlocal ). lua_setlocal assigns the value at pro-smoking papers the top of the essays great stack to pro-smoking research papers, the variable and returns its name. It also pops the value from the stack. Returns NULL (and pops nothing) when the index is greater than the number of colning human essay, active local variables. Sets the value of a closure's upvalue. It assigns the value at the top of the stack to the upvalue and returns its name. It also pops the value from the stack. Parameters funcindex and n are as in the lua_getupvalue (see lua_getupvalue ). Returns NULL (and pops nothing) when the pro-smoking research index is greater than the number of upvalues.

The auxiliary library provides several convenient functions to interface C with Lua. While the basic API provides the primitive functions for all interactions between C and Lua, the auxiliary library provides higher-level functions for some common tasks. All functions from the auxiliary library are defined in header file lauxlib.h and christmas vacation have a prefix luaL_ . All functions in the auxiliary library are built on top of the basic API, and so they provide nothing that cannot be done with this API. Several functions in the auxiliary library are used to check C function arguments. Their names are always luaL_check* or luaL_opt* . Papers! All of essays, these functions throw an error if the check is not satisfied. Because the error message is formatted for arguments (e.g., bad argument #1 ), you should not use these functions for other stack values. Here we list all functions and pro-smoking research papers types from the auxiliary library in list writing alphabetical order. Adds the character c to the buffer B (see luaL_Buffer ). Adds the string pointed to by s with length l to the buffer B (see luaL_Buffer ). The string may contain embedded zeros. Adds to the buffer B (see luaL_Buffer ) a string of length n previously copied to the buffer area (see luaL_prepbuffer ). Adds the zero-terminated string pointed to by s to the buffer B (see luaL_Buffer ). Pro-smoking Research! The string may not contain embedded zeros.

Adds the value at narrative christmas vacation the top of the stack to the buffer B (see luaL_Buffer ). Pops the value. This is the only function on string buffers that can (and must) be called with an extra element on the stack, which is the value to be added to research papers, the buffer. Checks whether cond is true. If not, raises an error with the following message, where func is retrieved from the call stack: Raises an error with the following message, where func is retrieved from the call stack: This function never returns, but it is an idiom to use it in C functions as return luaL_argerror( args ) . Type for essay a string buffer . A string buffer allows C code to pro-smoking, build Lua strings piecemeal. Its pattern of essay, use is as follows: First you declare a variable b of pro-smoking papers, type luaL_Buffer . Then you initialize it with a call luaL_buffinit(L, b) . Then you add string pieces to the buffer calling any of the luaL_add* functions. You finish by calling luaL_pushresult(b) . This call leaves the final string on the top of the stack. During its normal operation, a string buffer uses a variable number of stack slots.

So, while using a buffer, you cannot assume that you know where the top of the stack is. You can use the stack between successive calls to buffer operations as long as that use is balanced; that is, when you call a buffer operation, the stack is at the same level it was immediately after the previous buffer operation. (The only exception to this rule is connectors luaL_addvalue .) After calling luaL_pushresult the stack is back to pro-smoking research papers, its level when the buffer was initialized, plus the final string on its top. Initializes a buffer B . This function does not allocate any space; the buffer must be declared as a variable (see luaL_Buffer ). Calls a metamethod. If the object at index obj has a metatable and this metatable has a field e , this function calls this field and passes the object as its only argument. In this case this function returns 1 and pushes onto the stack the value returned by mechanic thesis, the call. If there is no metatable or no metamethod, this function returns 0 (without pushing any value on the stack).

Checks whether the function has an argument of any type (including nil ) at position narg . Checks whether the function argument narg is a number and returns this number cast to an int . Checks whether the papers function argument narg is a number and returns this number cast to a lua_Integer . Checks whether the function argument narg is narrative essay christmas vacation a number and returns this number cast to a long . Checks whether the function argument narg is a string and returns this string; if l is not NULL fills *l with the string's length. This function uses lua_tolstring to get its result, so all conversions and research caveats of that function apply here. Checks whether the essays great function argument narg is research a number and essay returns this number. Checks whether the function argument narg is a string and searches for this string in the array lst (which must be NULL-terminated). Pro-smoking Research! Returns the index in the array where the string was found. Raises an error if the argument is not a string or if the string cannot be found. If def is not NULL , the function uses def as a default value when there is mechanic thesis no argument narg or if this argument is nil . This is a useful function for mapping strings to C enums. (The usual convention in Lua libraries is to use strings instead of numbers to research, select options.)

Grows the stack size to top + sz elements, raising an essays great error if the pro-smoking research papers stack cannot grow to list of jobs get with writing degree, that size. msg is an research additional text to go into the error message. Checks whether the function argument narg is a string and returns this string. This function uses lua_tolstring to get its result, so all conversions and caveats of mechanic thesis, that function apply here. Checks whether the function argument narg has type t . Pro-smoking Research! See lua_type for the encoding of types for t . Checks whether the function argument narg is a userdata of the type tname (see luaL_newmetatable ). Loads and runs the given file. It is defined as the following macro: It returns 0 if there are no errors or 1 in case of errors.

Loads and runs the given string. It is defined as the following macro: It returns 0 if there are no errors or 1 in case of errors. Raises an error. The error message format is colning essay given by fmt plus any extra arguments, following the same rules of lua_pushfstring . It also adds at the beginning of the message the file name and the line number where the error occurred, if this information is available. This function never returns, but it is an idiom to pro-smoking research, use it in narrative essay vacation C functions as return luaL_error( args ) . Pushes onto the stack the field e from the metatable of the object at index obj . If the pro-smoking papers object does not have a metatable, or if the metatable does not have this field, returns 0 and pushes nothing. Pushes onto the stack the metatable associated with name tname in the registry (see luaL_newmetatable ). Creates a copy of string s by replacing any occurrence of the mechanic thesis string p with the research papers string r . Pushes the resulting string on essays great, the stack and returns it. Loads a buffer as a Lua chunk.

This function uses lua_load to load the chunk in the buffer pointed to by buff with size sz . This function returns the same results as lua_load . name is the chunk name, used for debug information and error messages. Loads a file as a Lua chunk. This function uses lua_load to load the chunk in the file named filename . If filename is NULL , then it loads from the standard input. The first line in pro-smoking papers the file is ignored if it starts with a # . This function returns the same results as lua_load , but it has an extra error code LUA_ERRFILE if it cannot open/read the mechanic thesis file. As lua_load , this function only loads the chunk; it does not run it. Loads a string as a Lua chunk. This function uses lua_load to load the chunk in the zero-terminated string s . This function returns the same results as lua_load . Also as lua_load , this function only loads the chunk; it does not run it. If the registry already has the key tname , returns 0. Otherwise, creates a new table to be used as a metatable for userdata, adds it to the registry with key tname , and pro-smoking returns 1. In both cases pushes onto the stack the final value associated with tname in the registry.

Creates a new Lua state. Connectors! It calls lua_newstate with an pro-smoking allocator based on the standard C realloc function and then sets a panic function (see lua_atpanic ) that prints an error message to the standard error output in case of fatal errors. Returns the new state, or NULL if there is essays great a memory allocation error. Opens all standard Lua libraries into the given state. If the pro-smoking research papers function argument narg is a number, returns this number cast to an int . Mechanic Thesis! If this argument is absent or is nil , returns d . Otherwise, raises an error. If the function argument narg is a number, returns this number cast to research, a lua_Integer . If this argument is absent or is nil , returns d . Otherwise, raises an error. If the function argument narg is a number, returns this number cast to a long . If this argument is absent or is nil , returns d . Otherwise, raises an error. If the function argument narg is a string, returns this string. If this argument is absent or is nil , returns d . Otherwise, raises an error.

If l is not NULL , fills the position *l with the results's length. If the function argument narg is a number, returns this number. If this argument is absent or is nil , returns d . Otherwise, raises an logical connectors error. If the function argument narg is a string, returns this string. If this argument is absent or is pro-smoking nil , returns d . Otherwise, raises an error. Returns an address to a space of size LUAL_BUFFERSIZE where you can copy a string to be added to buffer B (see luaL_Buffer ). After copying the string into this space you must call luaL_addsize with the size of the string to mechanic thesis, actually add it to the buffer. Finishes the use of buffer B leaving the final string on the top of the stack. Creates and research returns a reference , in the table at index t , for the object at the top of the stack (and pops the object).

A reference is a unique integer key. Ancient Essays! As long as you do not manually add integer keys into table t , luaL_ref ensures the uniqueness of the key it returns. You can retrieve an object referred by reference r by research papers, calling lua_rawgeti(L, t, r) . Function luaL_unref frees a reference and its associated object. If the connectors object at the top of the stack is nil , luaL_ref returns the constant LUA_REFNIL . Pro-smoking Research! The constant LUA_NOREF is guaranteed to be different from any reference returned by essays great, luaL_ref . Type for arrays of functions to be registered by luaL_register . Papers! name is the essays great function name and func is a pointer to research, the function. Any array of luaL_Reg must end with an sentinel entry in which both name and func are NULL . Opens a library. When called with libname equal to NULL , it simply registers all functions in the list l (see luaL_Reg ) into the table on the top of the essays great stack. When called with a non-null libname , luaL_register creates a new table t , sets it as the value of the global variable libname , sets it as the value of package.loaded[libname] , and registers on it all functions in pro-smoking papers the list l . If there is a table in package.loaded[libname] or in variable libname , reuses this table instead of essays great, creating a new one. In any case the function leaves the table on the top of the stack. Returns the name of the research papers type of the narrative essay value at the given index.

Generates an error with a message like the research papers following: where location is religion essays produced by luaL_where , func is the name of the papers current function, and rt is the type name of the actual argument. Releases reference ref from the table at index t (see luaL_ref ). The entry is removed from the table, so that the referred object can be collected. The reference ref is logical essay also freed to be used again. Pushes onto the stack a string identifying the current position of the research papers control at level lvl in the call stack. Typically this string has the following format: Level 0 is the running function, level 1 is the function that called the running function, etc. This function is used to build a prefix for error messages. The standard Lua libraries provide useful functions that are implemented directly through the C API. Some of egyptian religion essays, these functions provide essential services to the language (e.g., type and getmetatable ); others provide access to outside services (e.g., I/O); and others could be implemented in Lua itself, but are quite useful or have critical performance requirements that deserve an implementation in research C (e.g., table.sort ). All libraries are implemented through the official C API and are provided as separate C modules.

Currently, Lua has the following standard libraries: basic library, which includes the coroutine sub-library; package library; string manipulation; table manipulation; mathematical functions (sin, log, etc.); input and output; operating system facilities; debug facilities. Except for the basic and package libraries, each library provides all its functions as fields of a global table or as methods of essay christmas, its objects. To have access to these libraries, the C host program should call the luaL_openlibs function, which opens all standard libraries. Pro-smoking Research! Alternatively, it can open them individually by essays great, calling luaopen_base (for the basic library), luaopen_package (for the package library), luaopen_string (for the string library), luaopen_table (for the table library), luaopen_math (for the research papers mathematical library), luaopen_io (for the I/O library), luaopen_os (for the Operating System library), and luaopen_debug (for the debug library). These functions are declared in lualib.h and should not be called directly: you must call them like any other Lua C function, e.g., by using lua_call . The basic library provides some core functions to Lua.

If you do not include this library in your application, you should check carefully whether you need to provide implementations for some of its facilities. This function is a generic interface to the garbage collector. It performs different functions according to its first argument, opt : collect: performs a full garbage-collection cycle. This is the colning essay default option. stop: stops the pro-smoking research garbage collector. restart: restarts the garbage collector. count: returns the total memory in essays great use by Lua (in Kbytes). step: performs a garbage-collection step. Research Papers! The step size is controlled by arg (larger values mean more steps) in a non-specified way. If you want to control the essay step size you must experimentally tune the value of arg . Returns true if the step finished a collection cycle. setpause: sets arg as the papers new value for the pause of the collector (see §2.10). Returns the previous value for narrative pause . setstepmul: sets arg as the pro-smoking papers new value for the step multiplier of the collector (see §2.10). Returns the previous value for step . Usually, error adds some information about the error position at the beginning of the message.

The level argument specifies how to egyptian religion, get the research papers error position. With level 1 (the default), the error position is where the error function was called. Level 2 points the error to where the function that called error was called; and so on. Passing a level 0 avoids the addition of list of jobs you can degree, error position information to the message. If object does not have a metatable, returns nil . Otherwise, if the object's metatable has a __metatable field, returns the associated value. Otherwise, returns the metatable of the pro-smoking research given object. Returns three values: an iterator function, the table t , and 0, so that the construction. will iterate over the pairs ( 1,t[1] ), ( 2,t[2] ), ···, up to the first integer key absent from the table.

Loads a chunk using function func to get its pieces. Each call to colning human essay, func must return a string that concatenates with previous results. Research! A return of an empty string, nil , or no value signals the end of the chunk. If there are no errors, returns the compiled chunk as a function; otherwise, returns nil plus the error message. The environment of the returned function is the human essay global environment. chunkname is used as the chunk name for error messages and debug information. When absent, it defaults to =(load) . Similar to load , but gets the research papers chunk from file filename or from the standard input, if no file name is given. Similar to mechanic thesis, load , but gets the chunk from the research given string.

To load and run a given string, use the idiom. When absent, chunkname defaults to mechanic thesis, the given string. Allows a program to traverse all fields of a table. Its first argument is a table and its second argument is an index in this table. next returns the next index of the research table and colning essay its associated value. When called with nil as its second argument, next returns an initial index and its associated value. When called with the last index, or with nil in an empty table, next returns nil . If the second argument is absent, then it is interpreted as nil . In particular, you can use next(t) to check whether a table is pro-smoking empty. The order in connectors essay which the indices are enumerated is pro-smoking not specified, even for numeric indices . (To traverse a table in numeric order, use a numerical for or the ipairs function.)

The behavior of next is undefined if, during the traversal, you assign any value to a non-existent field in the table. You may however modify existing fields. In particular, you may clear existing fields. Returns three values: the next function, the table t , and nil , so that the construction. will iterate over human, all keyvalue pairs of research papers, table t . See function next for the caveats of modifying the table during its traversal. Calls function f with the given arguments in protected mode . This means that any error inside f is not propagated; instead, pcall catches the logical connectors error and returns a status code. Its first result is the pro-smoking papers status code (a boolean), which is true if the you can writing degree call succeeds without errors.

In such case, pcall also returns all results from the call, after this first result. In case of any error, pcall returns false plus the error message. This function returns table . If index is research papers a number, returns all arguments after argument number index . Otherwise, index must be the string # , and select returns the total number of extra arguments it received. Sets the environment to be used by the given function. Essay! f can be a Lua function or a number that specifies the function at that stack level: Level 1 is the function calling setfenv . setfenv returns the given function. As a special case, when f is 0 setfenv changes the pro-smoking research papers environment of the running thread. Mechanic Thesis! In this case, setfenv returns no values. Sets the metatable for the given table. (You cannot change the pro-smoking papers metatable of other types from Lua, only from C.) If metatable is nil , removes the metatable of the given table. List A Creative! If the original metatable has a __metatable field, raises an error.

This function returns table . An optional argument specifies the base to interpret the numeral. The base may be any integer between 2 and 36, inclusive. Pro-smoking! In bases above 10, the letter ' A ' (in either upper or lower case) represents 10, ' B ' represents 11, and so forth, with ' Z ' representing 35. In base 10 (the default), the number can have a decimal part, as well as an optional exponent part (see §2.1). In other bases, only unsigned integers are accepted. If the metatable of e has a __tostring field, then tostring calls the logical connectors corresponding value with e as argument, and uses the result of the call as its result. except that the above code can be written only for a fixed number of elements. By default, i is 1 and pro-smoking papers j is the length of the list, as defined by colning human essay, the length operator (see §2.5.5). This function is similar to pcall , except that you can set a new error handler. xpcall calls function f in protected mode, using err as the error handler.

Any error inside f is not propagated; instead, xpcall catches the error, calls the err function with the original error object, and returns a status code. Pro-smoking! Its first result is the status code (a boolean), which is true if the call succeeds without errors. In this case, xpcall also returns all results from the call, after this first result. Logical! In case of any error, xpcall returns false plus the result from err . The operations related to coroutines comprise a sub-library of the basic library and come inside the table coroutine . See §2.11 for a general description of coroutines. Creates a new coroutine, with body f . f must be a Lua function. Returns this new coroutine, an object with type thread . Starts or continues the execution of coroutine co . The first time you resume a coroutine, it starts running its body. The values val1 , ··· are passed as the pro-smoking research arguments to the body function. If the coroutine has yielded, resume restarts it; the values val1 , ··· are passed as the essays great results from the yield. If the coroutine runs without any errors, resume returns true plus any values passed to research papers, yield (if the coroutine yields) or any values returned by the body function (if the coroutine terminates).

If there is of jobs you can get with a creative writing degree any error, resume returns false plus the error message. Returns the running coroutine, or nil when called by the main thread. Returns the status of coroutine co , as a string: running , if the research coroutine is running (that is, it called status ); suspended , if the coroutine is suspended in a call to yield , or if it has not started running yet; normal if the coroutine is active but not running (that is, it has resumed another coroutine); and dead if the coroutine has finished its body function, or if it has stopped with an error. Creates a new coroutine, with body f . f must be a Lua function. Returns a function that resumes the essays great coroutine each time it is research called. Any arguments passed to of jobs get with degree, the function behave as the pro-smoking research extra arguments to resume . Returns the essays great same values returned by resume , except the first boolean. In case of error, propagates the papers error. Suspends the execution of the calling coroutine. The coroutine cannot be running a C function, a metamethod, or an iterator.

Any arguments to yield are passed as extra results to resume . The package library provides basic facilities for loading and building modules in Lua. It exports two of its functions directly in egyptian the global environment: require and module . Pro-smoking Papers! Everything else is exported in a table package . Creates a module. Religion Essays! If there is a table in pro-smoking research papers package.loaded[name] , this table is the colning module. Otherwise, if there is a global table t with the given name, this table is the module. Otherwise creates a new table t and sets it as the research value of the global name and the value of package.loaded[name] . This function also initializes t._NAME with the given name, t._M with the module ( t itself), and t._PACKAGE with the package name (the full module name minus last component; see below). Finally, module sets t as the new environment of the essays great current function and the new value of package.loaded[name] , so that require returns t . If name is a compound name (that is, one with components separated by dots), module creates (or reuses, if they already exist) tables for each component. For instance, if name is a.b.c , then module stores the module table in field c of field b of global a . This function can receive optional options after the module name, where each option is a function to be applied over papers, the module. Loads the given module. Ancient Essays! The function starts by looking into the package.loaded table to determine whether modname is already loaded. If it is, then require returns the pro-smoking value stored at colning human package.loaded[modname] . Otherwise, it tries to find a loader for the module. To find a loader, require is pro-smoking research guided by connectors essay, the package.loaders array.

By changing this array, we can change how require looks for a module. The following explanation is based on research, the default configuration for package.loaders . First require queries package.preload[modname] . If it has a value, this value (which should be a function) is the loader. Essays Great! Otherwise require searches for a Lua loader using the path stored in package.path . If that also fails, it searches for a C loader using the pro-smoking research path stored in package.cpath . If that also fails, it tries an all-in-one loader (see package.loaders ). Once a loader is found, require calls the loader with a single argument, modname . Mechanic Thesis! If the loader returns any value, require assigns the returned value to package.loaded[modname] . If the pro-smoking research loader returns no value and has not assigned any value to package.loaded[modname] , then require assigns true to egyptian essays, this entry. In any case, require returns the final value of package.loaded[modname] . If there is any error loading or running the pro-smoking research module, or if it cannot find any loader for human the module, then require signals an error. The path used by require to research papers, search for a C loader. Lua initializes the C path package.cpath in the same way it initializes the Lua path package.path , using the environment variable LUA_CPATH or a default path defined in essays great luaconf.h . A table used by require to control which modules are already loaded. Pro-smoking Research! When you require a module modname and package.loaded[modname] is not false, require simply returns the value stored there. A table used by require to control how to load modules. Each entry in list of jobs you can get with degree this table is a searcher function . When looking for a module, require calls each of these searchers in ascending order, with the module name (the argument given to require ) as its sole parameter. The function can return another function (the module loader ) or a string explaining why it did not find that module (or nil if it has nothing to say).

Lua initializes this table with four functions. The first searcher simply looks for a loader in the package.preload table. The second searcher looks for a loader as a Lua library, using the path stored at package.path . A path is a sequence of templates separated by semicolons. For each template, the searcher will change each interrogation mark in the template by pro-smoking, filename , which is the module name with each dot replaced by a directory separator (such as / in Unix); then it will try to open the resulting file name. So, for instance, if the Lua path is the string. the search for a Lua file for module foo will try to open the files ./foo.lua , ./foo.lc , and /usr/local/foo/init.lua , in that order. The third searcher looks for a loader as a C library, using the path given by the variable package.cpath . A Creative Degree! For instance, if the C path is the string. the searcher for module foo will try to open the files ./foo.so , ./foo.dll , and /usr/local/foo/init.so , in research that order. Once it finds a C library, this searcher first uses a dynamic link facility to link the application with the library.

Then it tries to find a C function inside the essays great library to be used as the loader. The name of this C function is the string luaopen_ concatenated with a copy of the module name where each dot is replaced by an underscore. Moreover, if the module name has a hyphen, its prefix up to research, (and including) the colning human essay first hyphen is removed. For instance, if the research papers module name is a.v1-b.c , the mechanic thesis function name will be luaopen_b_c . The fourth searcher tries an all-in-one loader . It searches the C path for papers a library for the root name of the egyptian religion given module. For instance, when requiring a.b.c , it will search for pro-smoking research papers a C library for a . If found, it looks into mechanic thesis, it for an open function for the submodule; in pro-smoking papers our example, that would be luaopen_a_b_c . Essays Great! With this facility, a package can pack several C submodules into one single library, with each submodule keeping its original open function.

Dynamically links the host program with the C library libname . Inside this library, looks for a function funcname and returns this function as a C function. (So, funcname must follow the research papers protocol (see lua_CFunction )). This is ancient egyptian religion essays a low-level function. It completely bypasses the package and module system. Unlike require , it does not perform any path searching and does not automatically adds extensions. libname must be the complete file name of the C library, including if necessary a path and pro-smoking extension. funcname must be the human essay exact name exported by the C library (which may depend on the C compiler and linker used). This function is not supported by ANSI C. As such, it is pro-smoking research only available on some platforms (Windows, Linux, Mac OS X, Solaris, BSD, plus other Unix systems that support the dlfcn standard). The path used by require to search for a Lua loader. At start-up, Lua initializes this variable with the value of the environment variable LUA_PATH or with a default path defined in mechanic thesis luaconf.h , if the environment variable is not defined.

Any ;; in research the value of the environment variable is replaced by essays great, the default path. A table to pro-smoking, store loaders for narrative specific modules (see require ). Sets a metatable for module with its __index field referring to the global environment, so that this module inherits values from the global environment. To be used as an option to pro-smoking papers, function module . This library provides generic functions for string manipulation, such as finding and extracting substrings, and pattern matching. When indexing a string in Lua, the human first character is at position 1 (not at pro-smoking 0, as in C). Indices are allowed to list a creative writing, be negative and are interpreted as indexing backwards, from the end of the string.

Thus, the last character is at pro-smoking research position -1, and so on. The string library provides all its functions inside the ancient egyptian essays table string . It also sets a metatable for strings where the __index field points to the string table. Therefore, you can use the string functions in object-oriented style. For instance, string.byte(s, i) can be written as s:byte(i) . The string library assumes one-byte character encodings. Note that numerical codes are not necessarily portable across platforms. Note that numerical codes are not necessarily portable across platforms.

Returns a string containing a binary representation of the given function, so that a later loadstring on this string returns a copy of the function. function must be a Lua function without upvalues. string.find (s, pattern [, init [, plain]]) If the pattern has captures, then in a successful match the captured values are also returned, after the two indices. will produce the string: The options c , d , E , e , f , g , G , i , o , u , X , and x all expect a number as argument, whereas q and s expect a string. This function does not accept string values containing embedded zeros, except as arguments to the q option.

As an example, the following loop. will iterate over all the pro-smoking words from string s , printing one per line. The next example collects all pairs key=value from the given string into a table: For this function, a ' ^ ' at the start of a pattern does not work as an anchor, as this would prevent the iteration. If repl is a string, then its value is used for replacement. The character % works as an mechanic thesis escape character: any sequence in repl of the form % n , with n between 1 and 9, stands for the value of the n -th captured substring (see below). The sequence %0 stands for the whole match. The sequence %% stands for a single % . If repl is a table, then the table is pro-smoking queried for every match, using the first capture as the key; if the pattern specifies no captures, then the colning human essay whole match is used as the key.

If repl is a function, then this function is called every time a match occurs, with all captured substrings passed as arguments, in order; if the pro-smoking pattern specifies no captures, then the mechanic thesis whole match is passed as a sole argument. If the research value returned by the table query or by the function call is a string or a number, then it is used as the connectors essay replacement string; otherwise, if it is research papers false or nil , then there is no replacement (that is, the original match is christmas kept in the string). Here are some examples: A character class is used to represent a set of characters. The following combinations are allowed in describing a character class: x : (where x is not one of the magic characters ^$()%.[]*+-? ) represents the character x itself. . : (a dot) represents all characters. %a : represents all letters. Research! %c : represents all control characters. %d : represents all digits. %l : represents all lowercase letters. %p : represents all punctuation characters. %s : represents all space characters. %u : represents all uppercase letters. %w : represents all alphanumeric characters. %x : represents all hexadecimal digits. %z : represents the character with representation 0. List Of Jobs A Creative Writing! % x : (where x is any non-alphanumeric character) represents the papers character x . This is the standard way to essays great, escape the magic characters. Pro-smoking Research! Any punctuation character (even the non magic) can be preceded by a ' % ' when used to represent itself in a pattern. [ set ] : represents the of jobs you can class which is the union of all characters in set . A range of characters can be specified by separating the end characters of the pro-smoking research papers range with a ' - '. All classes % x described above can also be used as components in logical essay set . Pro-smoking Research! All other characters in set represent themselves. For example, [%w_] (or [_%w] ) represents all alphanumeric characters plus the connectors underscore, [0-7] represents the octal digits, and [0-7%l%-] represents the octal digits plus the lowercase letters plus the ' - ' character. The interaction between ranges and pro-smoking classes is not defined.

Therefore, patterns like [%a-z] or [a-%%] have no meaning. [^ set ] : represents the narrative essay christmas vacation complement of set , where set is interpreted as above. For all classes represented by single letters ( %a , %c , etc.), the pro-smoking research papers corresponding uppercase letter represents the essays complement of the class. For instance, %S represents all non-space characters. The definitions of letter, space, and pro-smoking papers other character groups depend on the current locale. Essays Great! In particular, the class [a-z] may not be equivalent to papers, %l . A pattern item can be a single character class, which matches any single character in the class; a single character class followed by list of jobs get with a creative, ' * ', which matches 0 or more repetitions of characters in the class. These repetition items will always match the longest possible sequence; a single character class followed by ' + ', which matches 1 or more repetitions of characters in the class. These repetition items will always match the longest possible sequence; a single character class followed by ' - ', which also matches 0 or more repetitions of characters in the class. Unlike ' * ', these repetition items will always match the shortest possible sequence; a single character class followed by ' ? ', which matches 0 or 1 occurrence of a character in the class; % n , for research papers n between 1 and 9; such item matches a substring equal to the n -th captured string (see below); %b xy , where x and mechanic thesis y are two distinct characters; such item matches strings that start with x , end with y , and where the x and pro-smoking papers y are balanced . This means that, if one reads the string from left to right, counting +1 for an x and -1 for mechanic thesis a y , the research papers ending y is the egyptian first y where the count reaches 0. For instance, the item %b() matches expressions with balanced parentheses. A pattern is a sequence of pro-smoking, pattern items. Essays Great! A ' ^ ' at the beginning of a pattern anchors the pro-smoking research match at the beginning of the essay subject string.

A ' $ ' at the end of a pattern anchors the match at the end of the subject string. At other positions, ' ^ ' and research ' $ ' have no special meaning and represent themselves. A pattern can contain sub-patterns enclosed in parentheses; they describe captures . When a match succeeds, the substrings of the subject string that match captures are stored ( captured ) for future use. Captures are numbered according to their left parentheses. For instance, in egyptian religion essays the pattern (a*(.)%w(%s*)) , the part of the string matching a*(.)%w(%s*) is pro-smoking stored as the first capture (and therefore has number 1); the character matching . is captured with number 2, and the part matching %s* has number 3.

As a special case, the empty capture () captures the narrative christmas vacation current string position (a number). For instance, if we apply the pattern ()aa() on the string flaaap , there will be two captures: 3 and 5. A pattern cannot contain embedded zeros. Use %z instead. This library provides generic functions for pro-smoking papers table manipulation.

It provides all its functions inside the table table . Most functions in the table library assume that the table represents an array or a list. For these functions, when we talk about the length of essays great, a table we mean the result of the research papers length operator. Inserts element value at position pos in table , shifting up other elements to open space, if necessary. The default value for pos is n+1 , where n is the length of the table (see §2.5.5), so that a call table.insert(t,x) inserts x at the end of table t . Returns the christmas largest positive numerical index of the pro-smoking papers given table, or zero if the table has no positive numerical indices. (To do its job this function does a linear traversal of the colning human essay whole table.) Removes from table the element at position pos , shifting down other elements to research, close the space, if necessary. Returns the value of the essay removed element. The default value for pos is n , where n is the length of the pro-smoking table, so that a call table.remove(t) removes the last element of table t . The sort algorithm is not stable; that is, elements considered equal by the given order may have their relative positions changed by the sort. This library is an interface to essays great, the standard C math library. It provides all its functions inside the table math . Returns the absolute value of papers, x . Returns the arc cosine of x (in radians).

Returns the arc sine of x (in radians). Returns the arc tangent of x (in radians). Returns the arc tangent of y/x (in radians), but uses the signs of both parameters to essays great, find the pro-smoking research quadrant of the result. (It also handles correctly the case of x being zero.) Returns the smallest integer larger than or equal to x . Returns the cosine of mechanic thesis, x (assumed to be in radians). Returns the hyperbolic cosine of x . Returns the angle x (given in research papers radians) in narrative christmas degrees. Returns the value e x . Returns the largest integer smaller than or equal to x . Returns the remainder of the division of papers, x by religion, y that rounds the quotient towards zero. Returns m and e such that x = m2 e , e is an integer and the absolute value of m is in pro-smoking research the range [0.5, 1) (or zero when x is zero).

The value HUGE_VAL , a value larger than or equal to any other numerical value. Returns m2 e ( e should be an integer). Returns the natural logarithm of mechanic thesis, x . Returns the pro-smoking papers base-10 logarithm of x . Returns the mechanic thesis maximum value among its arguments. Returns the minimum value among its arguments. Returns two numbers, the integral part of x and pro-smoking the fractional part of x . Returns x y . (You can also use the expression x^y to essays great, compute this value.) Returns the angle x (given in degrees) in radians. This function is an interface to the simple pseudo-random generator function rand provided by ANSI C. (No guarantees can be given for its statistical properties.)

When called without arguments, returns a uniform pseudo-random real number in the range [0,1) . When called with an integer number m , math.random returns a uniform pseudo-random integer in the range [1, m] . When called with two integer numbers m and n , math.random returns a uniform pseudo-random integer in research the range [m, n] . Sets x as the seed for the pseudo-random generator: equal seeds produce equal sequences of colning human, numbers. Returns the sine of x (assumed to be in radians). Returns the hyperbolic sine of x . Returns the square root of x . (You can also use the expression x^0.5 to pro-smoking papers, compute this value.) Returns the tangent of x (assumed to be in radians). Returns the essays great hyperbolic tangent of x . The I/O library provides two different styles for research papers file manipulation. The first one uses implicit file descriptors; that is, there are operations to set a default input file and a default output file, and all input/output operations are over these default files. The second style uses explicit file descriptors. When using implicit file descriptors, all operations are supplied by table io . When using explicit file descriptors, the operation io.open returns a file descriptor and then all operations are supplied as methods of the file descriptor.

The table io also provides three predefined file descriptors with their usual meanings from C: io.stdin , io.stdout , and io.stderr . The I/O library never closes these files. Unless otherwise stated, all I/O functions return nil on failure (plus an error message as a second result and a system-dependent error code as a third result) and some value different from nil on success. Equivalent to file:close() . Without a file , closes the religion default output file. Equivalent to file:flush over research, the default output file. When called with a file name, it opens the ancient egyptian religion essays named file (in text mode), and sets its handle as the default input file. When called with a file handle, it simply sets this file handle as the default input file. When called without parameters, it returns the current default input file.

In case of errors this function raises the error, instead of returning an error code. Opens the given file name in read mode and returns an iterator function that, each time it is called, returns a new line from the papers file. Of Jobs Get With Writing! Therefore, the pro-smoking research construction. will iterate over all lines of the file. When the iterator function detects the end of colning, file, it returns nil (to finish the loop) and automatically closes the file. The call io.lines() (with no file name) is equivalent to io.input():lines() ; that is, it iterates over the lines of the default input file. In this case it does not close the file when the loop ends. This function opens a file, in the mode specified in the string mode . Research! It returns a new file handle, or, in case of errors, nil plus an error message. The mode string can be any of the following: r: read mode (the default); w: write mode; a: append mode; r+: update mode, all previous data is preserved; w+: update mode, all previous data is erased; a+: append update mode, previous data is preserved, writing is only allowed at colning human the end of pro-smoking research, file. The mode string can also have a ' b ' at the end, which is needed in essay some systems to open the file in research binary mode. This string is essays great exactly what is used in the standard C function fopen . Similar to io.input , but operates over the default output file.

Starts program prog in a separated process and pro-smoking papers returns a file handle that you can use to read data from this program (if mode is r , the default) or to write data to this program (if mode is essays great w ). This function is system dependent and is not available on all platforms. Equivalent to io.input():read . Returns a handle for a temporary file. This file is opened in update mode and it is automatically removed when the program ends. Checks whether obj is pro-smoking papers a valid file handle. Returns the string file if obj is an open file handle, closed file if obj is a closed file handle, or nil if obj is not a file handle. Equivalent to io.output():write . Closes file . Note that files are automatically closed when their handles are garbage collected, but that takes an unpredictable amount of time to happen. Saves any written data to file . Returns an iterator function that, each time it is called, returns a new line from the file. Therefore, the construction.

will iterate over all lines of the file. (Unlike io.lines , this function does not close the file when the loop ends.) Reads the file file , according to the given formats, which specify what to read. For each format, the function returns a string (or a number) with the characters read, or nil if it cannot read data with the specified format. When called without formats, it uses a default format that reads the entire next line (see below). The available formats are *n: reads a number; this is the only format that returns a number instead of a string. *a: reads the whole file, starting at the current position. On end of essay, file, it returns the empty string. *l: reads the next line (skipping the end of pro-smoking research, line), returning nil on end of file. This is the default format. number : reads a string with up to colning human essay, this number of characters, returning nil on end of file. If number is zero, it reads nothing and returns an empty string, or nil on end of research, file. Sets and gets the file position, measured from the beginning of the list degree file, to the position given by offset plus a base specified by the string whence , as follows: set: base is position 0 (beginning of the file); cur: base is current position; end: base is end of file; In case of success, function seek returns the final file position, measured in research papers bytes from the essay christmas beginning of the file. If this function fails, it returns nil , plus a string describing the error.

The default value for whence is cur , and for offset is 0. Therefore, the papers call file:seek() returns the current file position, without changing it; the call file:seek(set) sets the mechanic thesis position to the beginning of the file (and returns 0); and the call file:seek(end) sets the position to research, the end of the file, and essay returns its size. Sets the buffering mode for an output file. There are three available modes: no: no buffering; the research result of egyptian religion essays, any output operation appears immediately. full: full buffering; output operation is pro-smoking research performed only when the buffer is full (or when you explicitly flush the human file (see io.flush )). line: line buffering; output is research buffered until a newline is of jobs writing degree output or there is any input from some special files (such as a terminal device). For the last two cases, size specifies the size of the buffer, in bytes. The default is an appropriate size. Writes the value of pro-smoking, each of its arguments to the file . Logical Connectors! The arguments must be strings or numbers. To write other values, use tostring or string.format before write . This library is pro-smoking research papers implemented through table os . Returns an approximation of the amount in seconds of CPU time used by the program. Returns a string or a table containing date and time, formatted according to the given string format . If the time argument is present, this is the egyptian religion time to be formatted (see the os.time function for a description of this value). Otherwise, date formats the current time. If format starts with ' ! ', then the date is formatted in Coordinated Universal Time. After this optional character, if format is the string *t , then date returns a table with the following fields: year (four digits), month (1--12), day (1--31), hour (0--23), min (0--59), sec (0--61), wday (weekday, Sunday is 1), yday (day of the research papers year), and essay vacation isdst (daylight saving flag, a boolean).

If format is not *t , then date returns the date as a string, formatted according to the same rules as the C function strftime . When called without arguments, date returns a reasonable date and research time representation that depends on narrative christmas, the host system and on the current locale (that is, os.date() is research equivalent to os.date(%c) ). Returns the number of seconds from time t1 to time t2 . In POSIX, Windows, and logical connectors some other systems, this value is exactly t2 - t1 . This function is papers equivalent to the C function system . It passes command to be executed by an operating system shell. It returns a status code, which is system-dependent. If command is absent, then it returns nonzero if a shell is available and zero otherwise. Calls the C function exit , with an optional code , to human, terminate the host program. The default value for code is the success code. Returns the value of the process environment variable varname , or nil if the variable is not defined. Deletes the file or directory with the given name.

Directories must be empty to research papers, be removed. If this function fails, it returns nil , plus a string describing the error. Renames file or directory named oldname to newname . If this function fails, it returns nil , plus a string describing the error. Sets the current locale of the program. locale is a string specifying a locale; category is an optional string describing which category to change: all , collate , ctype , monetary , numeric , or time ; the default category is essays great all . The function returns the name of the new locale, or nil if the request cannot be honored. If locale is the empty string, the pro-smoking current locale is set to essays, an implementation-defined native locale. If locale is the string C , the current locale is set to the standard C locale. When called with nil as the first argument, this function only papers, returns the name of the current locale for the given category. Returns the current time when called without arguments, or a time representing the date and time specified by the given table. This table must have fields year , month , and day , and may have fields hour , min , sec , and isdst (for a description of these fields, see the os.date function). The returned value is a number, whose meaning depends on your system. In POSIX, Windows, and some other systems, this number counts the number of seconds since some given start time (the epoch).

In other systems, the meaning is not specified, and the number returned by time can be used only as an argument to date and difftime . Returns a string with a file name that can be used for a temporary file. The file must be explicitly opened before its use and explicitly removed when no longer needed. On some systems (POSIX), this function also creates a file with that name, to avoid security risks. (Someone else might create the file with wrong permissions in the time between getting the name and creating the file.) You still have to open the file to use it and to remove it (even if you do not use it). When possible, you may prefer to use io.tmpfile , which automatically removes the file when the program ends. This library provides the functionality of the list of jobs you can a creative writing degree debug interface to Lua programs. You should exert care when using this library. The functions provided here should be used exclusively for pro-smoking papers debugging and similar tasks, such as profiling. Please resist the temptation to use them as a usual programming tool: they can be very slow. Moreover, several of these functions violate some assumptions about Lua code (e.g., that variables local to narrative essay christmas vacation, a function cannot be accessed from outside or that userdata metatables cannot be changed by Lua code) and therefore can compromise otherwise secure code. All functions in pro-smoking research this library are provided inside the debug table. All functions that operate over a thread have an optional first argument which is the thread to operate over.

The default is always the current thread. Enters an interactive mode with the user, running each string that the essays great user enters. Using simple commands and other debug facilities, the user can inspect global and pro-smoking research papers local variables, change their values, evaluate expressions, and so on. A line containing only the word cont finishes this function, so that the caller continues its execution. Note that commands for debug.debug are not lexically nested within any function, and so have no direct access to local variables. Returns the essay current hook settings of the thread, as three values: the research current hook function, the current hook mask, and the current hook count (as set by the debug.sethook function). debug.getinfo ([thread,] function [, what]) Returns a table with information about a function.

You can give the function directly, or you can give a number as the mechanic thesis value of pro-smoking, function , which means the function running at level function of the call stack of the given thread: level 0 is the of jobs a creative writing current function ( getinfo itself); level 1 is the function that called getinfo ; and so on. If function is a number larger than the number of pro-smoking, active functions, then getinfo returns nil . The returned table can contain all the fields returned by lua_getinfo , with the string what describing which fields to fill in. The default for what is to get all information available, except the essays great table of valid lines. If present, the research papers option ' f ' adds a field named func with the function itself. If present, the option ' L ' adds a field named activelines with the table of valid lines. For instance, the expression debug.getinfo(1,n).name returns a table with a name for the current function, if a reasonable name can be found, and mechanic thesis the expression debug.getinfo(print) returns a table with all available information about the print function. This function returns the name and the value of the local variable with index local of the function at level level of the stack. Research! (The first parameter or local variable has index 1, and essays great so on, until the last active local variable.) The function returns nil if there is no local variable with the given index, and raises an error when called with a level out of range. (You can call debug.getinfo to pro-smoking, check whether the logical connectors essay level is papers valid.) Variable names starting with ' ( ' (open parentheses) represent internal variables (loop control variables, temporaries, and C function locals). Returns the metatable of the given object or nil if it does not have a metatable.

Returns the registry table (see §3.5). This function returns the name and the value of the upvalue with index up of the function func . The function returns nil if there is no upvalue with the given index. Sets the environment of the given object to the given table . Returns object . debug.sethook ([thread,] hook, mask [, count]) Sets the given function as a hook. The string mask and the number count describe when the hook will be called. The string mask may have the following characters, with the given meaning: c : the hook is called every time Lua calls a function; r : the hook is ancient religion essays called every time Lua returns from pro-smoking, a function; l : the hook is called every time Lua enters a new line of code. With a count different from zero, the hook is called after every count instructions. When called without arguments, debug.sethook turns off the hook. When the essays great hook is called, its first parameter is a string describing the event that has triggered its call: call , return (or tail return , when simulating a return from a tail call), line , and count . For line events, the pro-smoking research papers hook also gets the new line number as its second parameter. Inside a hook, you can call getinfo with level 2 to get more information about the running function (level 0 is the essays great getinfo function, and level 1 is the hook function), unless the event is pro-smoking tail return . In this case, Lua is essays great only simulating the return, and a call to getinfo will return invalid data. debug.setlocal ([thread,] level, local, value)

This function assigns the value value to the local variable with index local of the function at level level of the stack. The function returns nil if there is no local variable with the given index, and raises an error when called with a level out of range. (You can call getinfo to check whether the level is valid.) Otherwise, it returns the name of the local variable. Sets the metatable for the given object to the given table (which can be nil ). This function assigns the value value to pro-smoking, the upvalue with index up of the function func . The function returns nil if there is no upvalue with the given index. Otherwise, it returns the name of the upvalue. debug.traceback ([thread,] [message [, level]]) Returns a string with a traceback of the call stack. Colning Essay! An optional message string is appended at the beginning of the traceback. Pro-smoking Research! An optional level number tells at which level to mechanic thesis, start the traceback (default is research papers 1, the function calling traceback ).

Although Lua has been designed as an extension language, to be embedded in a host C program, it is also frequently used as a stand-alone language. Of Jobs You Can Get With! An interpreter for Lua as a stand-alone language, called simply lua , is provided with the standard distribution. The stand-alone interpreter includes all standard libraries, including the pro-smoking research papers debug library. Its usage is: The options are: -e stat : executes string stat ; -l mod : requires mod ; -i : enters interactive mode after running script ; -v : prints version information; -- : stops handling options; - : executes stdin as a file and stops handling options. After handling its options, lua runs the given script , passing to mechanic thesis, it the given args as string arguments.

When called without arguments, lua behaves as lua -v -i when the standard input ( stdin ) is a terminal, and as lua - otherwise. Before running any argument, the interpreter checks for an environment variable LUA_INIT . If its format is papers @ filename , then lua executes the mechanic thesis file. Otherwise, lua executes the string itself. All options are handled in order, except -i . For instance, an invocation like. will first set a to 1, then print the value of a (which is ' 1 '), and finally run the file script.lua with no arguments. (Here $ is the shell prompt. Your prompt may be different.) Before starting to run the script, lua collects all arguments in the command line in a global table called arg . The script name is stored at index 0, the first argument after the script name goes to pro-smoking research papers, index 1, and mechanic thesis so on. Any arguments before the script name (that is, the interpreter name plus the options) go to negative indices. For instance, in the call. the interpreter first runs the file a.lua , then creates a table.

and finally runs the file b.lua . The script is called with arg[1] , arg[2] , ··· as arguments; it can also access these arguments with the vararg expression ' . '. In interactive mode, if you write an incomplete statement, the interpreter waits for its completion by issuing a different prompt. If the pro-smoking global variable _PROMPT contains a string, then its value is used as the prompt. Similarly, if the global variable _PROMPT2 contains a string, its value is used as the secondary prompt (issued during incomplete statements). Logical Connectors! Therefore, both prompts can be changed directly on the command line or in pro-smoking papers any Lua programs by assigning to colning human essay, _PROMPT . See the research next example: (The outer pair of quotes is for connectors essay the shell, the inner pair is for pro-smoking research Lua.) Note the use of -i to enter interactive mode; otherwise, the program would just end silently right after the assignment to essays great, _PROMPT . To allow the use of Lua as a script interpreter in pro-smoking Unix systems, the stand-alone interpreter skips the first line of a chunk if it starts with # . Christmas Vacation! Therefore, Lua scripts can be made into executable programs by using chmod +x and the #! form, as in. (Of course, the location of the Lua interpreter may be different in your machine. If lua is in your PATH , then. is a more portable solution.) 7 Incompatibilities with the Previous Version. Here we list the incompatibilities that you may find when moving a program from Lua 5.0 to Lua 5.1. You can avoid most of the incompatibilities compiling Lua with appropriate options (see file luaconf.h ). However, all these compatibility options will be removed in the next version of Lua.

The vararg system changed from the pseudo-argument arg with a table with the extra arguments to the vararg expression. (See compile-time option LUA_COMPAT_VARARG in luaconf.h .) There was a subtle change in the scope of the implicit variables of the for statement and for the repeat statement. The long string/long comment syntax ( [[ string ]] ) does not allow nesting. You can use the new syntax ( [=[ string ]=] ) in these cases. (See compile-time option LUA_COMPAT_LSTR in papers luaconf.h .) Function string.gfind was renamed string.gmatch . (See compile-time option LUA_COMPAT_GFIND in luaconf.h .) When string.gsub is called with a function as its third argument, whenever this function returns nil or false the colning replacement string is the whole match, instead of the empty string. Function table.setn was deprecated. Papers! Function table.getn corresponds to the new length operator ( # ); use the operator instead of the function. (See compile-time option LUA_COMPAT_GETN in luaconf.h .) Function loadlib was renamed package.loadlib . (See compile-time option LUA_COMPAT_LOADLIB in luaconf.h .) Function math.mod was renamed math.fmod . (See compile-time option LUA_COMPAT_MOD in luaconf.h .) Functions table.foreach and table.foreachi are deprecated. You Can Get With Degree! You can use a for loop with pairs or ipairs instead. Pro-smoking! There were substantial changes in function require due to the new module system. However, the new behavior is connectors mostly compatible with the old, but require gets the path from package.path instead of from LUA_PATH . Function collectgarbage has different arguments. Function gcinfo is deprecated; use collectgarbage(count) instead. The luaopen_* functions (to open libraries) cannot be called directly, like a regular C function.

They must be called through Lua, like a Lua function. Function lua_open was replaced by lua_newstate to allow the user to set a memory-allocation function. You can use luaL_newstate from the standard library to create a state with a standard allocation function (based on realloc ). Functions luaL_getn and luaL_setn (from the auxiliary library) are deprecated. Use lua_objlen instead of luaL_getn and nothing instead of research, luaL_setn . Function luaL_openlib was replaced by list of jobs get with, luaL_register . Pro-smoking Research! Function luaL_checkudata now throws an error when the given value is not a userdata of the expected type. (In Lua 5.0 it returned NULL .) Here is the complete syntax of Lua in extended BNF. (It does not describe operator precedences.)

amistad movie essay Historian Eric Foner, DeWitt Clinton Professor of History at pro-smoking research, Columbia University, examines the issues surrounding the historical film Amistad . In this essay he explores the problems faced by the producers of Amistad and the shortcomings of both the logical connectors film and its accompanying study guide in their attempt to pro-smoking research, portray history. More importantly, Foner raises questions not only about the accuracy of details and lack of logical connectors essay historic context, but also about the messages behind Hollywood#8217;s portrayal of history as entertainment. Research! (Posted March 1998) Compared with most Hollywood megafilms, Amistad must be considered a step forward: it#8217;s about logical, slavery, not exploding volcanoes or rampaging raptors. But given that Steven Spielberg is the director, Anthony Hopkins and Morgan Freeman the research stars, and a reported $75 million was spent on production, it can only be judged a disappointment. It does contain a few visually compelling moments, such as the scene on a slave ship that viscerally conveys the horrors of the Middle Passage. Overall, however, as a movie Amistad is simply a bore. As history, this account of a Cuban slave ship seized in 1839 by its African captives, and colning human, their legal travail that ended in the U. S. Supreme Court, also leaves much to be desired. Amistad #8216;s problems go far deeper than such anachronisms as President Martin Van Buren campaigning for reelection on a whistle-stop train tour (in 1840, candidates did not campaign), or people constantly talking about the coming Civil War, which lay twenty years in the future.

Despite the filmmakers#8217; orgy of self-congratulation for rescuing black heroes from oblivion, the main characters of Amistad are white, not black. The plot pivots on lawyer Roger Baldwin#8217;s dawning realization that the case he is defending involves human beings, not just property rights, and on the transformation of papers John Quincy Adams, who initially refuses to assist the captives but eventually persuades the connectors Supreme Court to pro-smoking papers, order their return to Africa. As in Glory , an earlier film about black Civil War soldiers, Amistad 's black characters are essentially foils for egyptian religion essays, white self-discovery and pro-smoking papers, moral growth. This problem is compounded by having the Africans speak Mende, a West African language, with English subtitles. A courageous decision by Hollywood standards, this device backfired along the way when someone realized that Americans do not like subtitled movies, as foreign filmmakers have known for decades. In the end, most of the Mende dialogue ended up on the cutting- room floor. Apart from the intrepid Cinque, the Africans' leader, we never learn how the captives responded to mechanic thesis, their ordeal.

It would have been far better to have the Africans speak English (the film, after all, is historical fiction), rather than rendering them virtually mute. Most seriously, Amistad presents a highly misleading account of the case#8217;s historical significance, in the process sugarcoating the relationship between the American judiciary and slavery. The film gives the distinct impression that the papers Supreme Court was convinced by Adams' plea to repudiate slavery in favor of the natural rights of man, thus taking a major step on the road to abolition. In fact, the Amistad case revolved around the Atlantic slave trade #8212; by 1840 outlawed by international. Essays! treaty #8212; and papers, had nothing whatever to do with slavery as an domestic institution. Incongruous as it may seem, it was perfectly possible in the nineteenth century to condemn the colning importation of slaves from Africa while simultaneously defending slavery and the flourishing slave trade within the United States. In October 1841, in an uncanny parallel to events on the Amistad , American slaves being transported from Virginia to Louisiana on the Creole seized control of the ship, killing some crew members and pro-smoking research papers, directing the logical essay mate to sail to the Bahamas. For fifteen years, American Secretaries of State unsuccessfully badgered British authorities to return the slaves as both murderers and #8220;the recognized property#8221; of American citizens. This was far more typical of the government#8217;s stance toward slavery than the Amistad affair. Rather than being receptive to pro-smoking research papers, abolitionist sentiment, the courts were among the main defenders of slavery. A majority of the essays Amistad justices, after all, were still on research papers the Supreme Court in 1857 when, in the Dred Scott decision, it prohibited Congress from barring slavery from the Western territories and proclaimed that blacks in the United States had #8220;no rights which a white man is bound to respect.#8221; The film#8217;s historical problems are compounded by the study guide now being distributed to schools, which encourages educators to use Amistad to teach about essays great, slavery. The guide erases the distinction between fact and fiction, urging students, for example, to study black abolitionism through the film#8217;s invented character, Theodore Joadson, rather than real historical figures.

And it fallaciously proclaims the pro-smoking case a #8220;turning-point in the struggle to end slavery in the United States.#8221; Most galling, however, is the assumption that a subject does not exist until it is discovered by Hollywood. The guide ends with a quote from mechanic thesis, Debbie Allen, Amistad 's producer, castigating historians for suppressing the #8220;real history#8221; of African-Americans and slavery. Historians may be guilty of many sins, but ignoring slavery is not one of them. For the past forty years, no subject has received more scholarly attention. All American history textbooks today contain extensive treatments of slavery, almost always emphasizing the system#8217;s brutality and the heroism of those who survived #8212; the very things Amistad 's promoters claim have been suppressed.

If the authors of the papers study guide really want to of jobs a creative writing, promote an understanding of research papers slavery, they should direct students not to this highly flawed film, but to the local library. Logical Connectors! There they will discover several shelves of books on slavery and papers, slave resistance, from academic tomes to of jobs you can a creative writing degree, works for children. Maybe, in this era of budget cuts, some of papers that $75 million could have more profitably been spent on our public libraries.

essay title discuss How to write your best essay ever! English biz has separate guides for each of the types of writing you'll meet on your course but this particular guide is research papers probably the most important of them all. It will show you how to essays, construct an effective, well-structured argument-based essay. How do you feel when you're given an essay to write? Do you fill with f-f-fear? W-w-wobble with worry? P-p-pour with perspiration? Well, here's a way that make the whole process more satisfying and enjoyable! Okay, he's off his rocker (but we won't worry as he's not real!). He's yet to discover that writing an essay is never going to pro-smoking papers, be an easy task, even for the best writers.

But you're about to find out how it can be made much more straightforward , interesting and effective . Oh, and likely to gain you a significantly higher grade, too! So that's something to feel, well. just a little bit excited about! It's important to understand one thing before we start: unlike a maths or science question, an ancient egyptian essays English essay question has no single 'correct' answer. You can breathe easy on that one. It's just not like that. In an research English essay there is no one 'answer' and nothing to 'prove'. Vacation. That isn't to say there aren't wrong answers - there are. These are those based on 'mis-readings' of research papers your texts. Colning Essay. But what your teacher or examiner wants is a reasonable, informed, explained and well-supported view . In a nutshell, that's it. An essay requires this from you: a succinct opening in which you give an overview of your response to the essay question. This is a kind of 'super-condensed' response that sums up your whole response in a line or two.

you can add to the opening sentences, a very brief explanation of wh at aspects of the text brought you to this view . If you can give, say, four - six aspects, then you are setting out the coming structure of research your essay . Egyptian Religion Essays. There is no better way to begin an pro-smoking research essay than like this. From this point on you will never be left scratching your head wondering what to write next. the remainder of the essay is merely a series of PEE paragraphs that, point by point, argue the case for what you have just stated. Each point (P) needs its own paragraph and to a creative writing, have support (E) from the research papers, text (either a quotation, or an explanation of some aspect of essays great form or structure ) along with with an explanation (E) of how the text brought you to such a view, the effects it created, the methods the author used to create the effects and, finally, its relevance to pro-smoking papers, the text, that is, the author's purposes . That's it. Done and dusted! More detail below if needed.

The secret of a good essay? Make it an argument ! An effective essay is a piece of writing that makes a strong and mechanic thesis, well-supported case for a stated viewpoint . The view it makes the case for research is your response to the essay title or question . You'll have arrived at after a couple of readings of the text, more if a poem, and one of which will be a so-called 'close-reading' when you annotate the text carefully in line with whatever the essay question asks, seeking out support as quotations or explanations of useful effects created by ancient essays form and structure . So your essay starts with a clear statement of your opinion . It could be something like, as an example: 'Shakespeare's theme of pro-smoking papers violence in mechanic thesis Romeo and Juliet is shown especially effectively through the opening scene, as well as through the characters of Mercutio and Tybalt and an analysis of these three dramatic aspects will form the basis of this essay.' The opening overview is sometimes called a thesis statement . Papers. The 'thesis' is your response, i.e. the heart of your 'argument'. It's what the essay goes on to explain and support to essays great, show that it is a view that is well - considered, based on the text and research papers, reasonable to mechanic thesis, hold . Essays are about opinions, not facts. This point is crucial to papers, take on board. Ancient Egyptian Essays. There is pro-smoking never a straightforward right answer to an essay q uestion or title. There are wrong answers, of essays great course - caused through, for example, misinterpreting the text; but the 'answer' to an essay question will always be a point of view . Essays deal in pro-smoking opinions, not facts . This is why your teacher is looking to vacation, read your views and why you have come to think in this particular way. How do you arrive at a 'thesis' or overview? This is the tough part - there's no getting away from research that. Not least, this is because it puts to the test your knowledge of the text and your understanding of the essay title or question . The good news is that when it's done and done well, the remainder of the essay becomes much more straightforward and far more interesting to write, perhaps even a little exciting!

The Outline Structure for an Effective Essay. As already stated above, this first paragraph needs to christmas, open with a clearly stated summary of your whole 'answer' along with an equally brief summary of the pro-smoking research, aspects of the text you'll be analysing to show your stated view is sound . It is these early sentences that provide the major 'signposts' that give your essay and narrative essay christmas, its general direction. Importantly, you need to set a confident tone early on in the essay. This can be done by adding in a very few details to show you've grasped the research papers, text's big picture . This should be a brief comment (brevity is everything in the opening paragraph) on the major details of the colning, story (poem or whatever) along with an research papers equally brief statement of any relevant context , (that is the essay, situation you feel brought the writer to want to pro-smoking, write their text, including key aspects of their social , cultural and literary contexts ). This will, though, always need to be focused on the needs of the essay question . Notice how you are constantly seeking to avoid waffle and generalised 'bolted on' comments ; instead, you need to keep all you write tightly focused on the needs of the narrative essay, essay title or question. This is the bulk of the essay. It is a series of papers paragraphs each introduced with a new clear important and wholly relevant point . Sadly, it's all too easy to open a in a way that inspires little confidence and which drifts from the essay question or argument. Avoid this by opening each and every paragraph in a way that is ancient essays clearly and directly developing the essay's 'answer' or argument . If you started by stating the four-six aspects you'll be covering in your essay, then you'll have no difficulty knowing what to write in these body paragraphs. This is where you restate, in a different form, your opening argument and give a brief list of the major points you have made along with a comment about the wider implications and relevance of pro-smoking papers what you have found.

It will help to think back to essay christmas, the imaginary classroom situation. What would follow on research, from the highly condensed 'answer' you gave to your teacher? Your teacher might say, 'Good, that's a fair view to hold - but why do you think that? Show me from the text itself what made you think that way.' In the written essay, you'll need to be providing a whole lot more 'evidence' mainly in the form of quotations each one itself supported by a commentary derived from an human essay analysis of the quotation's literary and pro-smoking, linguistic content . However, with a central and list of jobs you can a creative writing, guiding argument starting off and flowing through the entire essay, it now becomes much easier to search the text for aspects and quotations that will provide good quality evidence to support the essay's points. Each point and supporting quotation needs to research, be followed by an analysis and comment . Connectors. Some teachers call this the P.E.E. ( point example explanation ) or P.Q.C. ( point quotation comment ) system. This is needed to papers, explain how and why the aspect of the text or the quotation 'works' within the context of the essay question and the originally stated argument.

Certain key questions need to be answered concerning each quotation used: What techniques have been used to make the language of the quotation effective? This means discussing the essays great, writer's methods , e.g. through the creation of realistic dialogue; the use of an effective metaphor; through vivid description; onomatopoeia; alliteration; effective stage directions, etc. How does the method used affect the research papers, reader's understanding of the text and its themes (e.g. 'the effect of this passage is to create a sense of egyptian religion really being there for research papers the reader. ')? Why was this method used (i.e. what was the writer's purpose )? E.g. 'At this point on the story the author wants to gain the reader's attention in order to essays great, begin exploring the research papers, overall theme of injustice. ' MARK GRABBING TIP No. 1!

Begin all of your paragraphs in such a way that it is essay absolutely clear you are focused on the essay question and its requirements, thus building up your overall argument. This will keep the essay on track and avoid the plague of poor essays: wandering, digression and waffle! What if your essay title isn't in the form of pro-smoking research a question? When considered as a question, you will often find it is easier to generate that all-important single main point of essays great view to papers, it - the egyptian religion, main idea upon which you will then base the remainder of your essay . Here is an example of a main idea succinctly stated (i.e. thesis statement ) that could be used to create an argument essay from the above question: The remainder of this - or any other - essay must then be no more than a linked series of points with each point explained , developed and supported in a paragraph of its own . Pro-smoking. These points must all be directly related to the main idea you have already explained in the opening paragraph, which itself is your response to religion, the essay title or question. Remember that each point - each paragraph - must set out to explain , develop and support some aspect of your over-riding main idea and nothing more . In this example, the paragraph that follows the opening paragraph - the first of what is called the body paragraphs of your essay - could be based on the point that the theme of ambition is shown through what Macbeth and Lady Macbeth are given by Shakespeare to say and do in Act One of the play. The third paragraph of your essay - its second body paragraph - might then explore, develop and support how the pro-smoking research papers, theme of ambition is shown through these two characters in some part of Act 2, and so on. Below you'll find lots more detail and ideas for writing an effective essay but with luck, the above will have given you the basic idea. Aim to 'integrate' words or phrases from the text you are studying directly into your own sentences (still using quotation marks, of course). Don't overdo this effective technique, but used sparingly, this use of mechanic thesis 'embedded' quotations can help create a very impressive style, one that suggests you have a good grasp of the text and the essay question.

Here are some examples of how to use embedded quotations. The first is from the opening of John Steinbeck's novel, 'Of Mice and Men': 'Small and quick' George is pro-smoking research presented by Steinbeck as a character in complete contrast to his friend, the lumbering and 'shapeless' Lennie. Here is a similarly embedded quotation from J B Priestley's 'An Inspector Calls': As the Inspector says, 'We don't live alone' and human essay, this is an important message Priestley gives his audience. Finally, see how this can be done using John Agard's poem, 'Half-Caste': Perhaps Agard also wants his reader to 'come back tomorrow' with a different attitude towards those they might feel are in any way different from themselves. MORE TIPS AND MORE DETAIL! Essays take a great deal of effort and time and so deserve careful preparation. T he most common failing examiners find is a lack of understanding of the text on pro-smoking research, which the essay is based. This is to take the road signpos ted 'Failure'.

But you're heading elsewhere. So. get to know your text well. You won't succeed if you don't! I f you struggle with the ancient, text, read it through again with a study guide to hand. Also, talk the text over pro-smoking papers with friends or your teacher. There is more help with specific texts here . Many essay writers fail to create an initial main viewpoint or drift from this single focus. This loses marks as it leads to waffle , vagueness and generalisation . As you've read above, another common pitfall is to focus too much on the surface features of the text you are writing about.

This happens when you write at length about the logical connectors, meaning of the text, i.e. by telling what happens in it. In effect, all you are doing when you do this is to retell the story of the text. You need to be discussing how and why the author has created an effective text through careful, interesting and effective choices of pro-smoking papers style and language as well as structure . M ore marks are lost if you forget the need to support the points you make in each paragraph. A good idea is to egyptian religion, try to pro-smoking, use at least one quotation - or reference to connectors essay, the text - per paragraph. Remember, too, that this is an English essay and this means you need to papers, reflect how authors use language and literary techniques in effective ways in their writing . Aim only to colning, choose quotations that contain important elements in pro-smoking research papers them that will allow you to discuss in depth aspects of, for example, their literary style , language or structure. Consider discussing, for example, how the quotation acts to build tension , mood , character , a sense of essay place or how it helps explore one of the text's themes . Discuss, too, how the quotation works both at the point it occurs and as a contribution to the whole , i.e. the way it helps the writer achieve his or her purpose . This means you need to discuss aspects of the quotation such as its effectiveness - which means discussing aspects of language , structure and style . 1. DEVELOP A STRONG INITIAL FOCUS FOR YOUR ESSAY. The word 'essay' comes from pro-smoking research papers a French word meaning 'attempt': your essay is your attempt to logical essay, argue for your point of pro-smoking research papers view , a view that when succinctly expressed is called a thesis statement . This 'thesis statement' needs to be an idea you developed based on an interpretation of whatever aspect of the text is asked in the essay question. Interpretation means considering how a text operates at different levels ; it is your interpretation of the text that will be at the heart of the essay: an interpretation that must supports the overall thesis statement. 2. FIND SOLID SUPPORT FOR YOUR VIEWPOINT.

You will need to search through the text and note down a series of aspects and quotations that can be used to support the overall view you have developed. Use 'post-it notes' to help with this or write the aspects/quotations down separately. Choose aspects or quotations that you can analyse successfully for the methods used , effects created and essays great, purpose intended . 3. Pro-smoking. WRITE AN EFFECTIVE OPENING PARAGRAPH. Use your introductory paragraph to state your point of view , i.e. your thesis statement. The purpose of your opening paragraph is to make clear your thesis statement - response to colning human essay, the essay question: that is, to explain the focus of your argument - your main idea or point of pro-smoking research papers view. Stated clearly at the opening to your essay, this shows how you intend to essay, answer the papers, essay question and what general direction your essay will take. Following your thesis statement, it's a good idea to add a little more detail that acts to 'preview' each of the colning human, major points that you will cover in research papers the body of the essay. This opening paragraph will then act to mechanic thesis, show - succinctly - where you stand regarding the questions and how you intend to answer it. Importantly, in research the opening paragraph of religion essays your essay you will also need to write an overview of the text, one that gives a succinct summary of the pro-smoking research, ' big picture ' of the text; importantly, too, of course, this must be focused on mechanic thesis, the requirements of the essay question. Giving a succinct account of the big picture of the pro-smoking papers, text in christmas vacation the opening paragraph will show that you have engaged with and research, digested the detail of three key aspects of the logical essay, essay: the essay question, the pro-smoking, text and its author - perhaps also, a brief account of the author's context . Giving an overview suggests a confident approach and is a hallmark of the best essays. TIP: It is list get with degree always impressive to incorporate into your own sentences, using quotation marks of course, a short suitable quotation taken from the text.

Some teachers call this using embedded quotations. Keep all references to the biographical background of the author and pro-smoking, any aspects of his or her context entirely relevant to the essay question and - brief! Remember that this is not a history or a sociology essay so very few marks are awarded for this kind of background information (although that does not mean it might not be useful). The majority of marks in essays great an English essay are awarded for the quality of analysis and interpretation you show - that is, an awareness of the author's uses of the English language and literary uses of this. If your essay title does concern aspects of context try hard to discuss context by deriving your comments from quotations rather than by merely discussing aspects of context; in other words allow the papers, text to introduce the context.

TIP: avoid making simplistic and irrelevant value judgments of the logical, text or its author. Saying that Shakespeare is 'a wonderful author' or that you think 'Of Mice and Men' is 'really good' will gain no marks whatsoever - this is no more than a kind of waffle that fills space with empty words that add nothing useful to your essay. 4. USE THE REMAINING PARAGRAPHS EFFECTIVELY. Follow the opening paragraph with a number of paragraphs that form the 'body' of the research papers, essay. Each of these paragraphs are there purely to expand on mechanic thesis, and support your originally stated overall viewpoint.

Having stated your main idea in your opening paragraph, now you need explore this, develop it and provide support from the text for this. In the essay's body paragraphs your aim is to: follow the analysis system called P.E.E. or P.Q.C. For more on this see here ; work through the text's structure logically and, highlighting via the use of quotations, explain how these led you to research, develop your point of view; comment on how the language of each of these parts led you to form your interpretation: why did the author choose this particular type of christmas vacation language to make this point in pro-smoking research papers this way? How does it help a) the audience and colning human essay, b) the writer's purpose or theme ? discuss how this individual part of the text forms a useful structural part of the pro-smoking research papers, text by leading the reader towards an overall understanding of the essays great, themes, messages or purposes of the text; CRUCIALLY. Pro-smoking. each paragraph needs to develop a separate and individual point - one that will help to show how different parts and aspects of the text helped you develop your interpretation and viewpoint (this is the POINT part of P.E.E.); A useful tip is to open each paragraph with a topic sentence . This is a sentence that clearly makes a point that is essays developing your argument - your answer to the essay question - and, because it is, therefore, clearly focused on the essay question, it will keep your writing on research papers, track; Always aim to provide support for each of the points you make by referring directly to the text (this is the EXAMPLE part of P.E.E.). You normally do this by quoting briefly from a relevant part of the text but you might choose to describe an event. It's very important NOT to write a long description of WHAT happens. If you do you are merely 'retelling the story' - this loses many marks. In a play you also lose marks if you do not discuss aspects of the staging and human, stage action.

You will need to follow each quotation with an explanation of and a discussion on aspects of the research, language the author used in connectors the quotation; this means discussing, for pro-smoking example, how aspects of the connectors essay, quotations literary, poetic or dramatic language works, including mentioning the method the writer used, the effect the language creates and the reasons this might have been done (this is the EXPLAIN part of P.E.E). You should also aim to show how the quotation helped you develop your overall interpretation of the text (this is also the EXPLAIN part of P.E.E). 5. CREATE A LOGICAL STRUCTURE. Always work in a clear way through the papers, text, from vacation beginning to end. Avoid starting your essay by discussing a point that occurs half way through your text: ALWAYS begin at pro-smoking papers the beginning! Many students begin discussing a text half way through or even near the end then go back to an earlier point. List Of Jobs Writing Degree. This ignores the work the writer puts in to develop an effective structure to their text - and pro-smoking papers, loses marks! 6. CONCLUDE EFFECTIVELY.

The conclusion to an essay is important but causes problems for many students. It should leave your reader with a pleasant and logical sense of connectors 'closure' - a 'wrapping up' of the main ideas behind the essay . 1. Re-state in pro-smoking research papers a different form (using rather different words) your opening argument. 2. Now bring together your main points (again, avoiding simple repetition of the same words): list or summarise the main points from the preceding paragraphs (use the topic sentences from each paragraph to essays great, give you an idea). 3. End by identifying some of the wider implications and relevance that arise from what you have found and explored. The conclusion should consist of just a few sentences but these will need to be made to sound convincing and authoritative . It's crucial to keep the conclusion brief and to the point and, above all else, to introduce no new material at all. ALWAYS WRITE ANALYTICALLY , NEVER DESCRIPTIVELY. Here is an example of how many students go wrong; don't worry, you won't - but this is research a very common mistake: In William Shakespeare's play, 'Romeo and Juliet', these are the first two lines of the religion essays, 'Prologue' as spoken by pro-smoking papers 'The Chorus': 'Two households, both alike in dignity, In fair Verona, where we lay our scene. ' What follows is a typical 'retelling': an 'overview' or 'translation' that gains no marks : 'Here, Shakespeare is essay saying that the play is set in research Verona where there are two dignified families.' Compare the mechanic thesis, above 'description' with this analytical and insightful interpretation : 'The opening lines of the Prologue are important because they paint a picture for the audience of what could and should be - fairness and dignity.

These words set up a powerful contrast to papers, what is: the violence, hatred and bloodshed shown in the coming scene. It will be against this violent backdrop that the pure love of connectors essay Romeo and Juliet will have to struggle.' Which approach and pro-smoking research papers, style would gain the higher mark? STUCK FOR WHAT TO WRITE ABOUT? THERE ARE FOUR KEY ASPECTS THAT APPLY TO ALL TEXTS AND WHICH SHOULD FORM THE BASIS OF ANY LITERATURE ESSAY. FORM, CONTENT, STRUCTURE AND STYLE. This is egyptian so very often ignored despite the fact that it provides the basis for the very best essays because it provides a subtle response. And subtlety always receives the highest marks ! When you write about a text at the level of its form , you analyse how aspects of it other than the meaning of pro-smoking papers its language have been used by the writer in important and human, effective ways.

To give you an idea of the importance of form to a text, you yourself make use of the form of language when you speak loudly or softly , or when you chat or text a friend and use CAPS LOCK. Also, when you create short or long sentences or paragraphs you are affecting the look - the form - of your writing. This, albeit subtly, affects the way the writing is received and research papers, interpreted. A novelist makes use of form by essays great writing in sentences and paragraphs of varying lengths (you can imagine the effect a very short sentence, or a one-line paragraph, for example). Pro-smoking Papers. The use of dialogue (spoken words shown inside speech marks) is also an effective use of form, as is the use of underlining , bold or italics - or, in human non-fiction texts, the inclusion of bullet points or sections. Poets are acutely aware of and very creative with the use of pro-smoking form. A poet makes use of form, for example, by consciously splitting up sentences into the lines of poetry . This allows the ancient essays, poet to exaggerate a particular word by placing it at the end of a line, or by rhyming it with a similar sounding word. A non-fiction writer makes use of form by using layout and appearance and by pro-smoking papers adding illustrations and photographs , and connectors, so on. All writers use form by using patterns of sound , such as by using alliteration , rhyme , rhythm , onomatopoeia , assonance and so on. A playwright, of course, uses form very differently.

When your essay concerns a play, therefore, you'll definitely be losing marks if you ignore aspects of form. In a play, much of the pro-smoking, 'meaning' is list of jobs you can a creative degree created not from language but from what you see happening on the stage - the staging and stage action. Pro-smoking. This includes not just what the actors do but what they wear , where they stand and human, so on - all potentially important formal aspects of the play that should find their way onto your essay. Form is always worthy of pro-smoking research papers comment when (but only when ) if it adds usefully to the meaning, i.e. the content of a text. Every word and phrase has a literal meaning . This is of jobs you can get with a creative its basic dictionary meaning. It's sometimes called a word's denotation . E.g. 'In this story, the author's detailed description of darkness denotes the coming on pro-smoking papers, of a storm'. This is a way of 'playing' around with a word's meaning that makes writing more vivid , emotional and interesting . Words and phrases can be used differently from their literal context and given what is called a connotation . Using connotation or figurative language , a writer can introduce layers of meaning - especially emotional meaning (don't forget that many words can create both meaning and feeling ). The most common way this is done is to use a word not for its literal meaning but for its metaphorical or figurative meaning. Another way is to use a word that acts as symbolically and represents something very different from its literal meaning. E.g. 'As well as suggesting the coming of a storm, the darkness also acts to egyptian, suggest a metaphorical darkness is taking over the character's mind. In this way the darkness seems to be symbolising a kind of evil'.

Using a pun - a witty play on words - is another way that meaning can be played with in an interesting way. Punning works because some words, in a certain context, can have an ambiguous meaning - two possible meanings - one of which might be humorous. Irony is a key way that writers use to create layers of meaning. Sarcasm is irony, but this is pro-smoking a spoken form of irony that is egyptian essays intended to hurt someone's feelings by pro-smoking ridiculing some aspect of them. It's a crude, easy kind of irony not really subtle enough for writing. Irony is ancient egyptian essays usually subtle , sophisticated , edgy and witty ; an altogether more intelligent use of pro-smoking papers language.

But irony can also be difficult to list of jobs you can a creative writing degree, recognise - yet it is pro-smoking research papers probably true to say that irony is one of the most common means by which a sophisticated writer creates layers of meaning in a text . Irony works because when it is recognised, it engages the reader very much more closely with the human essay, text. This is because, rather like solving a puzzle, there is a real enjoyment and research, satisfaction in unpicking the various levels of meaning created by the irony. Creating an 'ironic tone of voice' in writing is much harder than in speech because the original sound of voice and facial expression or body language of the speaker are absent. Vacation. To create an ironic tone (or any tone, for that matter), words have to papers, be chosen with great care. It is a key reading skill to be able to vacation, detect this as it tells you what attitude the writer is taking towards their subject matter. An example of irony occurs in an old story by O. Henry called 'The Gift of the Magi'. This story of poor young lovers ends with the boyfriend selling the one thing he owns of value, his pocket watch, in order to buy his girlfriend an expensive hair comb; equally secretly, she has all of her long hair cut off to sell to a wig maker so she can afford to buy him. Pro-smoking. a chain for his watch. Structure is the way a writer consciously 'shapes' a piece of writing in human essay an attempt to make it as effective as possible for their audience and research papers, their purpose. It is important to comment on the structure of a text, e.g. 'The way the author slowly builds up the human essay, tension throughout this chapter helps create a feeling of real excitement and mystery'. Style is the way a writer or speaker consciously chooses language and pro-smoking research papers, language features to logical, suit a particular audience to pro-smoking research papers, achieve a specific purpose . When you aim to convince your mum that Friday's party cannot be missed, you will consciously adapt your style to one that is more emotional and persuasive!

Some famous writers have a particular style of their own that is quickly recognisable. John Steinbeck, Charles Dickens and human essay, William Wordsworth are three such writers - here, a writer's individual style is sometimes referred to as the writer's 'voice'. Your primary job when analysing and discussing a text is to comment on its style - on what are called the papers, stylistic or language choices its writer has made, especially those that seem to you to have been chosen to create a particular effect to achieve a certain purpose. So. if you are commenting on the form and content of a writer's language, you are commenting on the writer's style . COMPARING TWO OR MORE TEXTS. Even though it's a central part of the mark scheme, and always made clear in the essay question or title, each year many students still manage to write their comparison exam answer or coursework essay and forget to compare and contrast the texts . Aside from not knowing the texts sufficiently well, failing to compare and contrast is the number one reason marks are lost in this kind of essay. When writing about mechanic thesis, more than one text, your opening paragraph should be used to give the briefest details of each text (i.e. your writing needs to be succinct !). Papers. This will mean being even more careful and sparing when you write an essays great overview of each text, in which you give the big picture . There are two methods you can consider using when comparing texts:

1) Write about the first text fully before moving on to the second - still using the techniques outlined above; but when you go on pro-smoking research, to write about the second text, you must compare and contrast it with the first. 2) Alternatively, and this makes the narrative essay vacation, most sense when thinking about the argument essay, you write about both texts as you proceed . This allows you still, as shown above, to create a central argument , one in pro-smoking research which examples to support the points are taken from essay christmas vacation one or both texts as relevant to the point. This second method is the more complex and research papers, sophisticated of the connectors, two.