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Improved the performance of existing SSRS reports. Ran the stored procedure from SSMS and grader software viewed the query, checked and eliminated unnecessary joins, unneeded selected columns etc. Published reports on to SharePoint instance and created Web Parts in thesis SharePoint to show various reports generated from SSRS and Excel in one page. Free Professional Resume Critique. We have partnered with TopResume to essay grader, bring you a FREE resume critique service.

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Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. French post-structuralist philosopher, best known for essay software his highly influential formulation of postmodernism in The Postmodern Condition . Despite its popularity, however, this book is in fact one of his more minor works. Lyotard's writings cover a large range of ethics profits, topics in philosophy, politics, and aesthetics, and experiment with a wide variety of styles. His works can be roughly divided into three categories: early writings on phenomenology, politics, and the critique of essay grader software, structuralism, the intermediate libidinal philosophy, and later work on postmodernism and the differend. Rule Of Law Sovereignty Essay. The majority of his work, however, is unified by a consistent view that reality consists of singular events which cannot be represented accurately by rational theory. For Lyotard, this fact has a deep political import, since politics claims to be based on accurate representations of reality. Lyotard's philosophy exhibits many of the essay grader software, major themes common to post-structuralist and of law sovereignty essay, postmodernist thought. He calls into question the powers of reason, asserts the importance of software, nonrational forces such as sensations and emotions, rejects humanism and the traditional philosophical notion of the human being as the central subject of knowledge, champions heterogeneity and difference, and suggests that the understanding of society in terms of profits essays, progress has been made obsolete by the scientific, technological, political and cultural changes of the late twentieth century. Lyotard deals with these common themes in a highly original way, and his work exceeds many popular conceptions of postmodernism in essay its depth, imagination, and rigor.

His thought remains pivotal in contemporary debates surrounding philosophy, politics, social theory, cultural studies, art and aesthetics. Jean-Francois Lyotard was born in Vincennes, France, on August 10, 1924. His father, Jean-Pierre Lyotard, was a sales representative. His mother's maiden name was Madeleine Cavalli. He was schooled at the Paris Lycees Buffon and Louis-le-Grand, and his youthful aspirations to be a Dominican monk, a painter, an historian, or a novelist eventually gave way to a career in philosophy. He studied philosophy and literature at the Sorbonne (after twice failing the entrance exam to the Ecole Normale Superieure), where he became friends with Gilles Deleuze. His early interest in philosophies of indifference resulted in his M.A. dissertation Indifference as an Ethical Notion . Lyotard describes his existence up until the Second World War as a 'poetic, introspective and solitary way of thinking and living.' The war disrupted both his way of how my homework, life and his thought; he acted as a first-aid volunteer in the fight for liberation in the Paris streets in August 1944, and essay software, gave up the idea of indifference for a commitment to the investigation of reality in terms of social interactions. Lyotard became a husband and father at a young age, marrying Andree May in 1948 and subsequently having two children, Corinne and Laurence. Lyotard passed the essay, agregation (the examination required in order to teach in France) and took up a position teaching philosophy at a boy's lycee (school) in Constantine in essay grader software French-occupied East Algeria in 1950.

From 1952-59 he taught at thesis on alopecia, a school for the sons of military personnel at La Fleche. In Constantine Lyotard read Marx and became acquainted with the Algerian political situation, which he believed was ripe for socialist revolution. In 1954 Lyotard joined the socialist revolutionary organisation Socialisme ou Barbarie (Socialism or Barbarism). Other members of the organisation included Cornelius Castoriadis, Claude Lefort, and Pierre Souyris. Lyotard had met Souyris at a union meeting late in 1950, and they had a long and close friendship, eventually troubled by political and essay, theoretical differences.

Lyotard became an thesis intellectual militant, and asserts that for grader software fifteen years he was so dedicated to the cause of socialist revolution that no other aspect of life (with the sole exception of love) diverted him from this task. His writings in this period are solely concerned with ultra-left revolutionary politics, with a sharp focus on the Algerian situation (the war of independence had broken out in 1954). He contributed to The Research Process, and edited the essay grader, Socialisme ou Barbarie journal, and response essay, wrote pamphlets to distribute to workers at protests and at factory gates. In 1964 a schism erupted in Socialisme ou Barbarie over Castoriadis' new theoretical direction for the group. Grader Software. Lyotard, along with Souyris, became a member of the splinter group Pouvoir Ouvrier (Worker's Power), but resigned in 1966. Of Law Sovereignty Essay. He had lost belief in the legitimacy of Marxism as a totalising theory, and returned to the study and writing of philosophy. From 1959 to 1966 Lyotard was maitre-assistant at the Sorbonne, and then gained a position in the philosophy department at the University of Paris X, Nanterre. There he took part in the May 1968 political actions, organising demonstrations for the March 22 Movement. Lyotard attended the radical psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan's seminars in the mid-60s, and his reaction to Lacan’s theories resulted in Discours, figure , for which he received the degree of doctorat d'etat . Essay Grader. From 1968 to 1970 Lyotard was charge de recherches at Process, the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. In the early 1970s Lyotard was appointed to the University of Paris VIII, Vincennes, where he was a popular teacher and a prolific writer. In 1972 he was made maitre de conferences , and in 1987 he became Professor Emeritus at Vincennes.

The 1979 publication of The Postmodern Condition brought Lyotard worldwide fame, and in the 1980s and 90s he lectured widely outside of France. Lyotard was professor of essay software, French and Italian at the University of thesis on alopecia, California, Irvine, Robert W. Woodruff Professor of French at Emory University, and a founding member and essay grader software, sometime president of the College International de Philosophie. Lyotard was a visiting professor at Process, numerous universities, including John Hopkins, the University of California, Berkeley and San Diego, the University of Minnesota, the Universite de Montreal, Canada, the Universitat Siegen, West Germany, and essay grader software, the University of Sao Paulo, Brazil. Lyotard married his second wife Dolores Djidzek in 1993 and had a son, David. Lyotard died of leukaemia in Paris on April 21, 1998. Lyotard's first book, published in on alopecia 1954, is a short introduction to and examination of phenomenology. The first part introduces phenomenology through the work of Edmund Husserl, and the second part evaluates phenomenology's relation to the human sciences (particularly psychology, sociology, and history). In the grader software, second part the focus shifts from Husserl to the work of Maurice Merleau-Ponty. Throughout, Lyotard is concerned with phenomenology's attempt to find a third way between subjectivism and objectivism, avoiding the problems of each.

In particular, he is interested in the bearing this problem has on the question of whether phenomenology can think history politically, thus potentially contributing to ethics profits, Marxism. This theme (the relation of phenomenology to Marxism) was a prime concern for French thinkers of the fifties, and grader software, Lyotard's book is a useful documentation of the issues at stake. Much of his exposition and discussion is positive, and Lyotard argues that phenomenology can make valuable contributions to the social sciences, where it should serve two functions: firstly, to define the object of the science eidetically (i.e. in its essence) prior to all experimentation, and secondly, to philosophically reassess the results of experimentation. Summary Strong Essay. Lyotard argues, for example, that sociology has need of a phenomenological definition of the essence of the social before it can proceed effectively as a science. Essay Grader Software. While he sees the usefulness of phenomenology in The Research Process many disciplines, however, Lyotard's conclusions about the usefulness of phenomenology to Marxism are largely negative. He argues that phenomenology does not represent progress on Marxism, but is in fact a step backwards. For Lyotard phenomenology cannot properly formulate a materialist worldview and the objective nature of the relations of production; it ends up interpreting class struggle as taking place in consciousness. Lyotard rejects phenomenology's attempt to find a third way between subjectivism and objectivism, and asserts Marxism's superiority in viewing subjectivity as already contained in objectivity. In the fifteen years between his first two books of philosophy, Lyotard devoted all his writing efforts to the cause of software, revolutionary politics. His most substantial writings of this time were his contributions to the Socialisme ou Barbarie journal on the political situation in how my homework Algeria [many of which are collected in Political Writings ]. The project of Socialisme ou Barbarie was to provide theoretical resources to contribute to socialist revolution, critiquing other existing socialist strands (particularly Stalinism and the French communist party) as a hindrance to revolution, and essay grader software, with a particular emphasis on the critique of bureaucracy.

In the essays on Algeria, Lyotard applies this project to the French occupation, trying to determine the potential for on alopecia socialist revolution arising from this situation. Essay. He pays close attention to the economic forces at work in occupied Algeria, arguing that it is in the economic interests of France to keep Algerians in a state of underdevelopment and poverty. Furthermore, Lyotard introduces a notion of 'terror' that he develops more fully in thesis on alopecia his later works, indicating the suppression of Algerian culture by the imposition of foreign (French) cultural forms. The conclusion Lyotard comes to is that the occupation must end if the Algerian people are to prosper, but he remains ambivalent about the possibility of grader software, revolution. He surmises that a nationalist, democratic revolution will only lead to new forms of social inequality and domination, and insists that a socialist revolution is necessary.

This ambivalence was reflected in thesis Socialisme ou Barbarie 's debate about whether or not to support the Algerian war of independence, fearing that its democratic and nationalistic leanings would not bring about the result they desired. In Algeria Evacuated, written after the end of the occupation, Lyotard regretfully asks why a socialist revolution did not take place, concluding that the social and political upheavals resulted in an opportunistic struggle for essay software power rather than a class-based action. The end result of how my homework, Lyotard's work on Algeria and the disappointment at the failure of socialist revolution to take place led him to an abandonment of revolutionary socialism and traditional Marxism on the grounds that social reality is too complex to describe accurately with any master-discourse. Lyotard's second book of philosophy is long and difficult. It covers a wide variety of topics, including phenomenology, psychoanalysis, structuralism, poetry and art, Hegelian dialectics, semiotics, and philosophy of essay grader, language. The main thrust of thesis on alopecia, this work, however, is a critique of structuralism, particularly as it manifests itself in Lacan's psychoanalysis. The book is divided into two parts: the first uses Merleau-Ponty's phenomenology to essay grader software, undermine structuralism, and the second uses Freudian psychoanalysis to paper impact, undermine both Lacanian psychoanalysis and certain aspects of phenomenology. Lyotard begins with an opposition between discourse , related to structuralism and written text, and figure (a visual image), related to phenomenology and seeing. He suggests that structured, abstract conceptual thought has dominated philosophy since Plato, denigrating sensual experience. The written text and essay grader software, the experience of reading are associated with the paper, former, and figures, images and grader, the experience of seeing with the latter.

Part of Lyotard's aim is to how my homework, defend the importance of the figural and sensual experience such as seeing. He proceeds to deconstruct this opposition, however, and attempts to show that discourse and figure are mutually implicated. Essay Grader. Discourse contains elements of the figural (poetry and illuminated texts are good examples), and visual space can be structured like discourse (when it is broken up into ordered elements in thesis on alopecia order for the world to be recognisable and essay grader, navigable by the seeing subject). He develops an idea of the figural as a disruptive force which works to interrupt established structures in on alopecia the realms of both reading and seeing. Ultimately, the point is not to privilege the figural over the discursive, but to show how these elements must negotiate with each other. The mistake of structuralism is to essay software, interpret the figural in entirely discursive terms, ignoring the different ways in which these elements operate. In the second part of Discours, figure , structure and transgression are related to Freudian libidinal forces, paving the way for essays the libidinal philosophy developed in Libidinal Economy . In the early 1970s Lyotard developed a philosophy based around Sigmund Freud's theory of the libido. For Lyotard, libidinal energy can be used as a theoretical fiction to describe the transformations that take place in society. After his break with Marxism and rejection of totalising theory, he sought to essay grader, develop a theory that will take account of multiple and different forces and desires at thesis, work in any political or social situation, from the writing of theory to revolutionary politics to global economics. Lyotard's libidinal philosophy is developed in the major work Libidinal Economy and in two sets of essays, Derive a partir de Marx et Freud [some of which is translated in Driftworks ] and Des Dispositifs Pulsionnels . Libidinal Economy is an unusual and difficult work, and essay, encompasses a complex set of theories concerning politics, economics, theory, academic style, and thesis, readings of Marx and essay grader software, Freud. It is written in a bewildering combination of styles (at times reading more like an research paper avant-garde novel than a philosophical text), a method Lyotard uses in an attempt to overcome the limitations he sees in traditional academic theory.

The libidinal philosophy begins Lyotard's general commitment to an ontology of events, which also underlies his later postmodern philosophy. Lyotard sees reality in terms of unpredictable happenings (events), rather than structured regularities. These events can be interpreted in different ways, and no single interpretation will capture events accurately. Events always exceed interpretation; there is always something left over that an software interpretation does not account for. In the libidinal philosophy Lyotard uses the idea of libidinal energy to The Research Process, describe events and the way they are interpreted or exploited, and software, he develops a philosophy of society and theory in terms of the economy of libidinal energies. Lyotard uses the terms libidinal intensities, and affects” to refer to events. These intensities and essays, affects are, in more common terminology, feelings and desires. In the terms of Freudian psychoanalysis, they are the primary processes of the libido, the forces that exist in the body on grader a more basic level than the secondary processes of the conscious mind. In particular, Lyotard focuses on ethics profits sexual desire. Essay Grader. He uses these terms metaphorically, however, to describe the workings of reality and society as a whole, divorcing them from their usual attachments to human beings.

Lyotard describes the wholly impersonal as well as the personal in terms of feelings and desires, and paper, paints a picture of the world that moves and is moved in the ways that feelings move people. Lyotard admits that this description of everything in libidinal terms is a theoretical fiction, merely a way of speaking which gives us useful terms for theorizing about what happens in the world. Metaphysically, Lyotard is a materialist, and for him affects must be understood as concrete material entities. Essay Software. An affect might be a sound, a color, a smile or a caress: anything which has an ability to move, to essays, produce feelings and desires. Software. Affects are structured and interpreted in systems made up of dispositifs , libidinal dispositions or set-ups, and society is composed of multitudes of different dispositions that compete to exploit the energies of libidinal events. Lyotard develops a complex set of figures to describe how this process takes place. Libidinal Economy begins with the figure of a body (ambivalently sexed), being cut open and spread out to form a flat, band-like surface. Lyotard is here beginning to describe a region on which libidinal intensities take place and on which they meet with the dispositifs that channel libidinal energy. This region is material like the body, but it is not yet organized , thus the figure of dismemberment.

The flat band that the body has become is summary then given a twist and joined end to end, forming a moebius strip (a circular figure which has only one surface due to the twist it contains; a line traced along one side of the strip will end up on the other side without breaking contact with the surface). Grader Software. This strip is then set in motion, circulating so fast it glows red with heat. This is the libidinal band (sometimes called the libidinal skin). It represents the primary processes of desire and summary strong, libidinal intensity in which libidinal energy circulates in essay an aleatory fashion, not yet investing anything. Because the libidinal band is a moebius strip, desire circulates on only one surface; there is no inside or outside. How My Homework. In time the band begins to slow and grader software, cool, and forms what Lyotard calls the (disjunctive) bar. As the bar slows, sometimes it invests this region, sometimes that. It becomes disjunctive, distinguishing this from not-this . This stage in the transformation of the libidinal band represents the formation of rational thought, dominated by binary logic and the law of noncontradiction. Research Paper. Finally the bar stops and forms a stable disjunction. Lyotard describes the bar as then turning around on grader software itself and creating an enclosed space, a theatrical volume . This is the particular transformation of the libidinal band - or the particular dispositif on the libidinal band – that gives rise to representation and theory. The theatrical space has an inside and an outside, a clear disjunction between this and not-this.

Lyotard's image of theory as theatre is on alopecia based on the etymological relationship between the two terms; they are both derived from the Greek theasthai , meaning to grader, look at, contemplate, or behold. The theorist is like a spectator who views the representation of the world (outside the theatre) on the stage (inside the theatre). Lyotard's description of the transformations of the libidinal band is a theoretical fiction which provides an account of how the world works through the interplay of intense, excited libidinal energies and the stable structures which exploit them and dampen their intensity. The band is the space on which libidinal intensities meet dispositifs , or libidinal set-ups. These set-ups channel energy into more or less stable systems and structures, and how my homework, therefore all dispositifs, all systems and structures, can be described in terms of the slowing and cooling of the band. An example would be the way political institutions channel desires to change society away from violent, disruptive eruptions towards more moderate, less disruptive modes of action. Systems exploit libidinal intensities by grader channeling them into stable structures. And yet, these systems deny their own origins in intense and aleatory libidinal energy, taking themselves to be permanent and stable.

Systems hide, or dissimulate , affects (libidinal intensities). Conversely, however, affects dissimulate systems. Profits Essays. Systems and affects dissimulate each other. This means that systems contain and hide affects, and that affects contain and hide the possibility for forming systems. Dissimulation is a concept that allows us to see the elements of the libidinal economy as duplicitous. That is, they have more than one possibility. It is always possible for intensities to channel into essay grader software, a stable system, or to disrupt a system by destabilising it through intense investment. Lyotard develops a critical but nuanced approach towards theory, politics and strong essay, economics within the terms of the libidinal philosophy. Essay. His prime concern is how my homework that the structures that exploit libidinal intensities tend to become hegemonic.

That is, they tend to claim sole right to the exploitation or interpretation of essay grader, intensities. At the same time, they often deny libidinal intensities themselves, taking themselves to be primary and stable structures. Lyotard sees these tendencies as limiting and nihilistic, in the sense that they deny the full possibilities of the expression of intensities. In theory, politics, and cultural conventions, structured dispositions take themselves to be the actual structures of reality or correct interpretations, thus limiting the possibilities of change. Rule Essay. For Lyotard change is life affirming, whereas the stable structures that inhibit change are nihilistic and life denying.

However, Lyotard does not simply assert libidinal intensity as an affirmative other to nihilism. For Lyotard, there is no affirmative region, no pure outside to nihilism. Lyotard does not propose that we champion affects, singularities, intensities and libidinal energy over systems, structures, theory, concepts and representation. This is because the grader, only way libidinal energies can exist is within structures. Lyotard does not advocate a simple liberation of desire and does not attempt to set up a place beyond representation which would be immune to the effects of nihilism. Lyotard presents us, rather, with a metaphysical system in which intensities and structures are both essential elements of the libidinal economy. Lyotard's response to the nihilism of structure takes place through the concept of dissimulation, which suggests that libidinal energy must work within structures. Paper Impact. All structures contain libidinal energy as an under-exploited potentiality, waiting to be released and to flow into new structures. This libidinal energy is the event, which always contains more possibilities for interpretation and exploitation than any single structure can give it. Lyotard's libidinal philosophy prescribes a freeing up of structures, so that events may be allowed their maximum potentiality of expression in essay grader competing interpretations and dispositions. Releasing the energy in structures in turn creates new events, with their own energetic potentialities.

Because the event is unpredictable, we cannot actively control the way it will be released and form new structures. However, we can act passively so as to encourage the maximum release of intensity within structures. Lyotard's own style of writing in Libidinal Economy is one attempt to do this: by multiplying genres of summary strong response essay, discourse, there is no overall dominant structure in the text and grader software, it is open to several competing modes of reading, interpretation and application. Ultimately, libidinal philosophy suggests a method of subversion from within existing structures through experimentation with the forms of those structures. Lyotard abandoned his libidinal philosophy in the later years of the seventies, beginning a philosophy of paganism that developed, by the eighties, into his unique version of postmodernism. The turn from the libidinal to the pagan and the postmodern continued a concern with events and the limits of representation, but concerned two key changes: 1. A change in the mode of analysis from libidinal forces to how my homework, language, and 2. a new focus on justice.

Whereas in essay software the libidinal philosophy the focus was to see that a single interpretation of an event did not become hegemonic, in Lyotard's later philosophy he is primarily concerned with the ethics profits essays, problems of justice that arise between competing interpretations of essay, events. Thesis. Lyotard's philosophy of language and justice is most fully developed through the essay, concept of the differend, in the book of the same name. Lyotard develops the notion of paganism in Lessons in Paganism (reprinted in The Lyotard Reader ), Just Gaming and various other short works of the late seventies. The term paganism refers to a way of thinking that takes into account and strives to do justice to incommensurable differences. Just as pagan religions believe in rule of law essay a number of software, different gods rather than just one God, Lyotard's pagan philosophy represents a concern for pluralism and multiplicity (terms he uses synonymously to oppose the idea of universality). This concern for difference, multiplicity and pluralism is related to Lyotard's basic commitment to an ontology of strong, singular events: if reality is grader constituted by of law sovereignty unique happenings, then there will be no universal law of judgement which will be able to take account of each and every event in a way which does them all justice. Paganism suggests that there are irreducible differences in the order of software, things, and that we must take things on their own terms without attempting to reduce them to universals. In his writings on paganism, Lyotard analyses politics in the form of on alopecia, a justice of grader software, rhetoric. In Lessons in Paganism he claims that all discourse is narrative; all theory, all politics, all law, are merely a collection of stories.

In Just Gaming , he analyses situations where questions of justice and judgement arise in terms of language games. Lyotard rejects the claims of any discourse to be grounded in truth. He rejects the idea of a master-discourse (later called a metanarrative) that is thought to on alopecia, provide the basis for judgement in all situations. Grader Software. (Marxism, Hegelian philosophy, and Kant's ideal of unity or totality as regulating justice are examples of master-discourses that have dominated the philosophical tradition.) Instead, Lyotard suggests that paganism is the most appropriate response to the desire for justice. Paganism is godless politics; it is the abandonment of universal judgement for specific, plural judgements. This means giving up the idea of a single, law-like theoretical schema which could be applied to thesis, any situation in which judgment is essay grader required. Summary Response Essay. Lyotard asserts that a justice of multiplicities requires a multiplicity of justices. Paganism is the essay software, attempt to judge without pre-existing criteria, in matters of truth, beauty, politics and ethics. Paganism rejects any universal criteria for The Research Process judgement, yet Lyotard claims that we must judge, that justice demands this of essay software, us. So how do we judge, without criteria? Lyotard invokes both Kant and Nietzsche in his answer. In Kantian terms, we judge through the constitutive imagination . For Kant, this ability to judge, and to invent criteria, is research impact mysterious, and there is little we can say about it.

In Nietzschean terms, Lyotard says that judgement is an expression of the will to power. It is grader software perhaps misleading of Lyotard to say that paganism is ethics profits essays judgement without criteria; for it is judgement only without universal criteria. Essay Grader Software. What he is denying is the possibility of a discourse that will give us adequate criteria for judgement in each and every case. Instead, what we must do (as pagans) is how my homework meet every circumstance that requires judgement anew, and create criteria specific to that case by an affirmative act of the imaginative will. Thus we will get a plurality of criteria, a plurality of judgements, a plurality of justices.

In this sense, paganism can be thought of as a plurality of rules of judgement (gods), as opposed to belief in grader software just one rule or set of rules (God). Somewhat paradoxically, perhaps (as Lyotard himself admits), the justice of this pluralism is assured by a prescriptive of universal value - the prescriptive that the rules of individual language games be respected; that they are not subsumed under a single criterion of judgement. Lyotard soon abandoned the term 'paganism' in favour of ‘postmodernism.’ He presents his initial and highly influential formulation of postmodernism in The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge , commissioned by The Research the government of Quebec and published in 1979. Essay Grader. Lyotard famously defines the postmodern as 'incredulity towards metanarratives,' where metanarratives are understood as totalising stories about history and the goals of the human race that ground and legitimise knowledges and cultural practises. The two metanarratives that Lyotard sees as having been most important in the past are (1) history as progressing towards social enlightenment and emancipation, and (2) knowledge as progressing towards totalisation. Modernity is summary strong essay defined as the age of essay, metanarrative legitimation, and postmodernity as the age in which metanarratives have become bankrupt. Through his theory of the end of metanarratives, Lyotard develops his own version of what tends to be a consensus among theorists of the postmodern - postmodernity as an age of fragmentation and pluralism. The Postmodern Condition is a study of the status of knowledge in computerized societies.

It is summary Lyotard's view that certain technical and technological advancements have taken place since the Second World War (his historical pin-pointing of the beginning of postmodernity) which have had and are still having a radical effect on the status of grader, knowledge in the world's most advanced countries. As a defining element with which to characterise these technical and technological advancements, Lyotard chooses computerization . Lyotard identifies the impact, problem with which he is dealing - the variable in the status of knowledge - as one of legitimation . For Lyotard, this is a question of both knowledge and power. Knowledge and power are simply two sides of the same question: who decides what knowledge is, and who knows what needs to be decided? According to Lyotard, in the computer age the question of knowledge is now more than ever a question of government. With vast amounts of essay, knowledge stored digitally in databases, who decides what knowledge is worth storing (what is strong response legitimate knowledge) and who has access to these databases? Lyotard points a suspicious finger at multinational corporations. Using IBM as an example, he suggests a hypothetical in which the corporation owns a certain belt in the Earth's orbital field in essay which circulate satellites for communication and/or for storing data banks.

Lyotard then asks, 'who will have access to them? Who will determine which channels or data are forbidden? The State? Or will the State simply be one user among others?' The method Lyotard chooses to use in his investigations is that of The Research, language games . Lyotard writes that the developments in postmodernity he is dealing with have been largely concerned with language: 'phonology and theories of essay grader software, linguistics, problems of communication and how my homework, cybernetics, modern theories of grader, algebra and informatics, computers and their languages, problems of translation and the search for areas of compatibility among computer languages, problems of information storage and data banks, telematics and the perfection of intelligent terminals, paradoxology.' Lyotard’s use of language games is derived from Ludwig Wittgenstein.

The theory of language games means that each of the various categories of utterance can be defined in terms of rules specifying their properties and the uses to which they can be put. Lyotard makes three particularly important observations about language games. Firstly, the rules of language games do not carry within themselves their own legitimation, but are subject to a contract between “players” (interlocutors). Secondly, if there are no rules there is no game and even a small change in the rules changes the game. And Parliamentary Sovereignty. Thirdly, every utterance should be thought of as a move in a game. Grader Software. Different types of utterances, as identified by Wittgenstein, pertain to different types of language games. Lyotard gives us a few examples of types of utterances. The denotative is an utterance which attempts to correctly identify the object or referent to which it refers (such as Snow is white). The “performative” is an utterance which is itself a performance of an act to which it refers (such as I promise). The “prescriptive” is an utterance which instructs, recommends, requests, or commands (such as Give me money). For both Wittgenstein and Lyotard, language games are incommensurable, and research paper impact, moves in one language game cannot be translated into moves in another language game.

For example, we cannot judge what ought to be the case (a prescriptive) from what is the case (a denotative.) Lyotard's choice of language games is primarily political in motivation, and essay grader software, relates to Process, the close links between knowledge and power. In examining the status of knowledge in postmodernity, Lyotard is examining the essay grader, political as well as epistemological aspects of knowledge (legitimation), and he sees the basic social bond - the minimum relation required for society to exist - as moves within language games. Lyotard needs a methodological representation to apply to society in ethics order to examine the status of knowledge in postmodern societies. He presents us with two alternative views of society that have been popular in this century: society as a unitary whole (traditional theory) or society as a binary division (“critical” theory). Lyotard rejects both of these alternatives on software the grounds that the choice seems difficult or arbitrary, and research paper, also rejects a third alternative - that we might distinguish two kinds of equally legitimate knowledge, one based on the view of society as unitary and the other on the view of essay grader software, society as binary.

This division of knowledge is caught within a type of oppositional thinking that Lyotard believes is out of step with postmodern modes of knowledge. Instead of the how my homework, recently popular or modern models of society, Lyotard argues that even as the status of knowledge has changed in postmodernity, so has the nature of the social bond, particularly as it is evident in society's institutions of knowledge. Lyotard presents a postmodern methodological representation of society as composed of multifarious and fragmented language games, but games which strictly (but not rigidly - the rules of a game can change) control the moves which can be made within them by reference to narratives of legitimation which are deemed appropriate by their respective institutions. Thus one follows orders in grader the army, prays in church, questions in philosophy, etc., etc. In his analysis of the state of knowledge in postmodernity, Lyotard firstly distinguishes between two types of knowledge - narrative knowledge and “scientific” knowledge. Narrative knowledge is the kind of knowledge prevalent in primitive or “traditional' societies, and is based on profits essays storytelling, sometimes in the form of ritual, music and dance. Essay Grader Software. Narrative knowledge has no recourse to Process, legitimation - its legitimation is immediate within the narrative itself, in the timelessness of the narrative as an enduring tradition - it is told by essay software people who once heard it to listeners who will one day tell it themselves. Process. There is no question of questioning it. Indeed, Lyotard suggests that there is an incommensurability between the question of legitimation itself and grader software, the authority of narrative knowledge. In scientific knowledge, however, the question of paper, legitimation always arises. Lyotard says that one of the most striking features of scientific knowledge is that it includes only denotative statements, to the exclusion of all other kinds (narrative knowledge includes other kinds of statements, such as prescriptives).

According to the narrative of essay software, science, however, only knowledge which is legitimated is how my homework legitimate - i.e. is essay grader software knowledge at all. Scientific knowledge is legitimated by certain scientific criteria - the repeatability of experiments, etc. If the entire project of science needs a metalegitimation, however (and the criteria for scientific knowledge would itself seem to demand that it does) then science has no recourse but to narrative knowledge (which according to scientific criteria is rule sovereignty no knowledge at all). This narrative has usually taken the form of a heroic epic of some kind, with the software, scientist as a hero of knowledge who discovers scientific truths. The distinction between narrative and scientific knowledge is a crucial point in Lyotard's theory of postmodernism, and one of the defining features of summary strong response, postmodernity, on his account, is the dominance of scientific knowledge over grader software, narrative knowledge. The pragmatics of scientific knowledge do not allow the recognition of narrative knowledge as legitimate, since it is not restricted to denotative statements). Paper. Lyotard sees a danger in this dominance, since it follows from his view that reality cannot be captured within one genre of discourse or representation of events that science will miss aspects of events which narrative knowledge will capture.

In other words, Lyotard does not believe that science has any justification in claiming to be a more legitimate form of knowledge than narrative. Part of software, his work in The Postmodern Condition can be read as a defence of narrative knowledge from the increasing dominance of scientific knowledge. Furthermore, Lyotard sees a danger to the future of academic research which stems from the way scientific knowledge has come to on alopecia, be legitimated in postmodernity (as opposed to the way it was legitimated in essay grader software modernity). In modernity the narrative of science was legitimated by one of a number of metanarratives, the two principal ones being respectively Hegelian and Marxist in nature. The Hegelian metanarrative speculates on the eventual totality and unity of all knowledge; scientific advancement is legitimated by the story that it will one day lead us to that goal. The Marxist metanarrative gives science a role in the emancipation of humanity. According to Lyotard, postmodernity is characterised by the end of metanarratives. So what legitimates science now? Lyotard's answer is - performativity . This is what Lyotard calls the technological criterion - the most efficient input/output ratio. The technical and technological changes over the last few decades - as well as the development of capitalism - have caused the of law essay, production of knowledge to essay grader software, become increasingly influenced by research impact a technological model.

It was during the industrial revolution, Lyotard suggests, that knowledge entered into the economic equation and became a force for production, but it is in grader postmodernity that knowledge is becoming the central force for production. Of Law And Parliamentary Sovereignty. Lyotard believes that knowledge is becoming so important an economic factor, in fact, that he suggests that one day wars will be waged over the control of information. Lyotard calls the change that has taken place in the status of knowledge due to the rise of the performativity criterion the grader software, mercantilization of knowledge. In postmodernity, knowledge has become primarily a saleable commodity. Knowledge is produced in order to be sold, and is consumed in order to fuel a new production. According to Lyotard knowledge in postmodernity has largely lost its truth-value, or rather, the thesis, production of knowledge is no longer an aspiration to produce truth. Today students no longer ask if something is true, but what use it is to them.

Lyotard believes that computerization and the legitimation of knowledge by the performativity criterion is doing away with the idea that the absorption of knowledge is inseparable from the training of minds. Essay Grader. In the near future, he predicts, education will no longer be given en bloc to people in their youth as a preparation for life. Rather, it will be an ongoing process of learning updated technical information that will be essential for ethics profits their functioning in their respective professions. Lyotard does not believe that the innovations he predicts in postmodern education will necessarily have a detrimental effect on erudition. He does, however, see a problem with the legitimation of knowledge by performativity. This problem lies in the area of research. Legitimation by performativity lends itself to what Lyotard calls terror - the exclusion of players from language games or the exclusion of certain games entirely. Most true discoveries, Lyotard argues, are discoveries by essay grader software virtue of the fact that they are so radical that they change the rules of the game - they cannot even be articulated within the rules of the dominant game (which is dominant because it draws the how my homework, consensus of opinions). Many discoveries are not found to have a use until quite some time after they are made; therefore they seem to be of little value by the performativity criterion.

Furthermore, for economic reasons, legitimation by performativity tends to essay grader, follow the consensus opinion - that which is perceived by the majority of experts to how my homework, have the most efficient input/output ratio is considered most likely in fact to be most performatively efficient, and hence the safest investment. Lyotard argues that legitimation by performativity is against the interests of research. He does not claim that research should be aimed at production of the truth; he does not try to re-invoke the metanarratives of modernity to legitimate research. Rather, he sees the role of research as the production of software, ideas. Summary Response Essay. Legitimation of knowledge by performativity terrorises the production of ideas. What, then, is the alternative?

Lyotard proposes that a better form of legitimation would be legitimation by paralogy . The etymology of this word resides in the Greek words para - beside, past, beyond - and logos in its sense as reason. Software. Thus paralogy is the movement beyond or against paper reason. Lyotard sees reason not as a universal and immutable human faculty or principle but as a specific and variable human production; paralogy for him means the movement against an established way of reasoning. In relation to research, this means the production of new ideas by going against or outside of established norms, of software, making new moves in language games, changing the Process, rules of software, language games and inventing new games. Lyotard argues that this is in ethics essays fact what takes place in scientific research, despite the imposition of the performativity criterion of legitimation.

This is particularly evident in what Lyotard calls postmodern science - the search for essay instabilities [see Science and thesis, Technology]. For Lyotard, knowledge is not only the known but also the revelation or “articulation” of the unknown. Thus he advocates the legitimation of knowledge by paralogy as a form of legitimation that would satisfy both the desire for justice and the desire for the unknown. Lyotard develops the philosophy of language that underlies his work on paganism and postmodernism most fully in The Differend: Phrases in Dispute . This book is, by Lyotard's own estimation, both his most philosophical and most important. Here he analyses how injustices take place in essay software the context of language. Ethics Profits Essays. A differend is a case of conflict between parties that cannot be equitably resolved for grader lack of strong response, a rule of judgement applicable to both.

In the case of a differend, the parties cannot agree on a rule or criterion by which their dispute might be decided. A differend is opposed to a litigation - a dispute which can be equitably resolved because the parties involved can agree on a rule of judgement. Essay Grader Software. Lyotard distinguishes the victim from the plaintiff. Summary Response. The later is the wronged party in a litigation; the essay, former, the rule and parliamentary essay, wronged party in a differend. In a litigation, the plaintiff's wrong can be presented. In a differend, the victim’s wrong cannot be presented. A victim, for grader software Lyotard, is not just someone who has been wronged, but someone who has also lost the summary strong response, power to present this wrong. This disempowerment can occur in several ways: it may quite literally be a silencing; the victim may be threatened into silence or in some other way disallowed to speak. Alternatively, the victim may be able to grader software, speak, but that speech is unable to present the of law essay, wrong done in the discourse of the rule of judgement. The victim may not be believed, may be thought to be mad, or not be understood.

The discourse of the rule of judgement may be such that the victim's wrong cannot be translated into its terms; the wrong may not be presentable as a wrong. Lyotard presents various examples of the differend, the most important of which is Auschwitz. He uses the example of the revisionist historian Faurisson's demands for proof of the Holocaust to show how the differend operates as a sort of double bind or catch-22. Faurisson will only accept proof of the existence of gas chambers from eyewitnesses who were themselves victims of the essay, gas chambers. Research Paper Impact. But of course, any such eyewitnesses are dead and software, are not able to testify. Faurisson concludes from this that there were no gas chambers. The situation is this: either there were no gas chambers, in which case there would be no eyewitnesses to produce evidence, or there were gas chambers, in which case there would still be no eyewitnesses to produce evidence (since they would be dead). Since Faurisson will accept no evidence for the existence of gas chambers except the testimony of actual victims, he will conclude from both possibilities (i.e. On Alopecia. gas chambers existed; gas chambers didn't exist) that gas chambers didn't exist. The situation is a double bind because there are two alternatives - either there were gas chambers or there were not - which lead to the same conclusion: there were no gas chambers (and no Final Solution). The case is a differend because the harm done to the victims cannot be presented in the standard of judgment upheld by Faurisson.

Lyotard presents the logic of the double bind involved in the differend in general as follows: either p or not p; if not-p, then Fp; if p, then not-p, then Fp. The two possibilities (p or not-p) both lead to essay grader, the same conclusion (Fp). Lyotard gives a further example of the logic of the impact, double bind: it is like saying both either it is white, or it is not white; and if it is white it is not white. Another example of the differend which commentators on Lyotard often invoke is essay that of indigenous peoples' claims to land rights in colonised countries. This example shows the relevance of Lyotard's work for practical problems of justice in the contemporary world. Let us take Australian Aborigines as an example. Many tribal groups claim that land which they traditionally inhabited is now owned and controlled by the descendants of of law essay, European colonists. Essay. They claim that the essays, land was taken from them wrongfully, and that it should be given back to them.

There is a differend in grader this case because Aboriginal land rights are established by tribal law, and evidence for such rights may not be presentable in the law of the Australian government. The court of appeal in which claims to land rights are heard functions entirely according to government law, and tribal law is not considered a valid system of judgment. In the case of a dispute over a certain area of land by thesis on alopecia farmers who are descendants of software, colonists on the one hand, and a tribe of Aborigines on the other hand, the court of appeal will be the one which involves the law that the farmers recognise (government law), while the law that the Aborigines recognise (tribal law) will not be considered valid. It may be the case that the only evidence for the claim to land rights that the sovereignty essay, Aborigines have will not be admissible as evidence in the court of grader software, government law (though it is perfectly acceptable in tribal law). Hence, we have a case of a wrong which cannot be presented as a wrong; a differend.

Lyotard develops the thesis on alopecia, theory of the differend through a complex analysis of language, drawing heavily on analytic philosophers as well as ancients and early moderns. Lyotard's ontology of events is essay software developed here in terms of the phrase as event, and the limits of representation are seen in the indeterminacy involved in the linking of phrases. Phrases, on Lyotard's account, may be extralinguistic, and can include signs, gestures, or anything that happens. Every event is to be understood as a phrase in The Research Process the philosophy of the differend. Essay. This characterisation of events as phrases may be understood as a theoretical fiction or a way of response, speaking which allows Lyotard to develop a theory of events through the analysis of language, just as the libidinal philosophy does using libidinal energy.

Lyotard calls the way phrases are linked together in series, one after the other, the concatenation of phrases. The law of concatenation states that these linkages must be made - that is, a phrase must be followed by another phrase - but that how to link is never determinate. Essay Grader Software. There are many possible ways of linking on The Research Process to a phrase, and no way is the right way. In order to characterise phrases as events which are beyond full understanding and essay, accurate representation, Lyotard undermines the common view that the essay, meanings of phrases can be determined by what they refer to (the referent). That is, for Lyotard the meaning of a phrase as event (something happens) cannot be fixed by appealing to reality (what actually happened). He develops this view of language by essay software appealing to Saul Kripke's concept of the proper name as a rigid designator and by defining reality in an original way. Proper names pick our referents in a way that is rigid and consistent but, according to Lyotard, empty of sense. For example, the how my homework, name Fred may consistently pick out a particular person, but there are many different senses or meanings which may be attached to this person.

Only phrases carry sense (i.e. tell us something meaningful about Fred). The proper name may fix reference, but does nothing to grader software, fix sense. The name acts as a point which links the referent and the many senses which may be attached to it. Lyotard then defines reality as this complex of possible senses attached to a referent through a name. Response Essay. The correct sense of a phrase cannot be determined by a reference to reality, since the referent itself does not fix sense and reality itself is defined as the complex of competing senses attached to essay software, a referent. The phrase event remains indeterminate.

Lyotard uses the concepts of a phrase universe and of the difference between presentation and situation in order to show how phases can carry meanings and yet be indeterminate. Every phrase presents a universe, composed of the following four elements or, as Lyotard calls them, instances: The sense (the possible meanings of the phrase) The referent (the thing to which the of law sovereignty essay, phrase refers) The addressor (that from which the phrase comes) The addressee (that to software, which the phrase is sent) In the initial presentation of the phrase, the instances of the universe are equivocal. That is, there are many possible ways in which the rule of law essay, instances may be situated in grader relation to each other. Ethics. Who or what uttered the phrase, and to whom?

To what does the phrase refer? What sense of the essay software, phrase is meant? This equivocation means that the meaning of the phrase is not fixed in how my homework the initial presentation, and only becomes fixed through what Lyotard calls situation. Situation takes place when the instances of the phrase universe are fixed through the concatenation of phrases. That is, when the essay grader software, phrase is followed by another phrase. When phrases are concatenated, they follow rules for linking called phrase regimens . Phrase regimens fix the instances of the The Research, phrase universe within a concatenation; these regimens are syntactic types of phrases such as the cognitive, the descriptive, the prescriptive, the interrogative, the evaluative, and so on. Any situation of a phrase within a concatenation will only essay grader software, be one possible situation of the how my homework, initial presentation of the phrase, however.

It is always possible to situate the phrase in essay a different way by concatenating with a different phrase regimen. In other words, the presentation of the phrase event is not able to be accurately represented by any particular situation. This also means that there is no correct way of concatenating a phrase, no correct phrase regimen to be employed in following one phrase with another. Lyotard insists that phrase regimens are heterogenous and incommensurable. That is, they are of radically different types and cannot be meaningfully compared through an initial presentation of the phrase event of which they are situations. However, different phrase regimens can be brought together through genres. Genres supply rules for the linking of phrases, but rather than being syntactic rules as phrase regimens are, genres direct how to concatenate through ends, goals, or stakes. What is at stake in ethics the genre of comedy, for example, is to be humorous, to make people laugh.

This goal directs how phrases are linked on from one to another. As an example, Lyotard suggests that the phrase To arms! might be followed by the phrase “You have just formulated a prescription if the goal is to software, make people laugh, but not if the goal implied by the genre is to inspire direct action (such as may be the case if it is uttered by a military commander on a battlefield). Genres of discourse can bring heterogenous phrase regimens together in a concatenation, but genres themselves are heterogenous and incommensurable. This means that there is no correct genre in which to situate the initial phrase which is presented, and no genre has more validity than others. Thesis On Alopecia. The differend arises on this level of essay grader software, genres when the phrase event gives rise to different genres, but one genre claims validity over the others. That is, one genre claims the exclusive right to impose rules of concatenation from the initial phrase. How do we know when a differend has occurred? Lyotard says that it is signalled by the difficulty of linking on from one phrase to research paper, another.

A differend occurs when a discourse does not allow the linkages which would enable the presentation of a wrong. Lyotard insists that phrases must, of necessity, follow other phrases - even silence is a kind of phrase, with its own generic effects. A silent phrase in the context of a dispute may be covering four possible states of affairs, corresponding to each of the instances in the phrase universe: The sense: The meaning of the referent cannot be signified. The referent: The referent (the wrong, etc.) did not take place. The addressor: The addressor does not believe that the referent falls within the competence of him/her self to present. The addressee: The addressor does not believe that the referent (the wrong, etc.) falls within the essay grader software, competence (to hear, to understand, to judge, etc.) of the addressee. In order for the referent to be expressed, these four silent negations must be withdrawn. Research Impact. The referent must have reality, must be presentable in the rules of the discourse, and the addressor must have confidence in the competence of both him/her self and the addressee. Through the essay grader, idea of the differend, Lyotard has drawn particular attention to research paper impact, the problems of the presentability of the referent when the parties in dispute cannot agree on essay a common discourse, or rule of judgement (i.e. Paper Impact. cannot agree on software the genre(s) of phrase linkage).

Justice demands, however, that wrongs be presented - we must at least try to present the unpresentable. How is this possible? Lyotard does not believe that there is any easy answer. But for the sake of how my homework, justice, we must try. We must identify differends as best we can - sometimes, no more than vague feelings attest to the existence of essay grader, a differend. It may be the feeling of not being able to find the words.

Lyotard associates the summary strong, identification of a differend with the feeling of the sublime, the mixture of pleasure and essay software, pain which accompanies the attempt to present the rule essay, unpresentable. He privileges art as the realm which is best able to provide testimony to differends through its sublime effects [see Reason and software, Representation; Politics; Art and Aesthetics]. Lyotard's philosophy frequently calls into question the powers of reason, rejecting many of the claims that have been made about it in the history of on alopecia, philosophy. Essay Software. The limitations of reason are particularly evident for The Research Process Lyotard in regard to the problems of representation. Since Descartes, the grader, dominant model of rational thought in profits Western philosophy has been that of the human subject representing the objective world to its self. It has frequently been claimed that in this way complete and certain knowledge is possible, at least in theory.

Lyotard calls such claims into doubt through his thesis that events exceed representation. Essay Grader. Furthermore, Lyotard draws attention to the fact that reason tends to operate with structured systems of concepts which exclude the sensual and emotional, but that these exclusions can never be entirely maintained. And Parliamentary Sovereignty. On the one hand, any representation will miss something of the event, and on the other, non-rational forces such as feelings and desires will arise to disrupt rational schemas of thought. Lyotard's analysis of the limits of reason and representation is played out in Discours, figure through the terms of the discursive and essay, the figural. The discursive is the term used for reason and representation here; it is the rational system of representation by concepts that forms a system of oppositions. The figural is what exceeds rational representation; it appeals to sensual experience, emotions and desires. Lyotard uses the metaphors of flatness and depth to refer to discourse and figure, respectively. The opposition between discourse and thesis, figure is deconstructed, however, since to maintain it as an opposition would be to essay grader software, remain within the rule sovereignty, logic of discourse (and to retain discourse as primary).

Lyotard introduces a distinction between opposition and difference to account for the differing ways in which the discursive and essay software, the figural function. Difference corresponds to figure, and the distinction between discourse and figure itself is said to be one of difference rather than opposition. In opposition, two terms are rigidly opposed and quite distinct; in difference, the two terms are mutually implicated, yet ultimately irreconcilable. Difference is a disruptive force at the limits of discourse, indicating that no rational system of representation can ever be closed or complete, but is always opened up to forces (sensual, emotional, figural) that it cannot enclose within itself. In Discours, figure , Lyotard takes structuralism (still a dominant intellectual trend in France in the early seventies when the book was written) as an example of the excesses of reason and representation. Structuralism seeks to explain everything in Process terms of underlying, conditioning structures that take the form of rigid systems of oppositions. His aim is to show that structuralism ignores the figural elements at work both outside and within representational structures. Lyotard shows that discourse and figure are mutually implicated (thus deconstructing the software, opposition) by examining the relationship of Ferdinand de Saussure's linguistics and Merleau-Ponty’s phenomenology. For Saussure, language is a flat system of opposing terms that gain meaning from each other, rather than from referents outside the system. Merleau-Ponty's phenomenology suggests that we experience the world on a pre-cognitive level as ambiguous and somewhat chaotic sense data which must be synthesized by the perceiving subject in order to structure the world in a meaningful way. Saussure's linguistics suggests that our understanding of the world is given as a structure to on alopecia, begin with, while Merleau-Ponty's phenomenology suggests that we first encounter an unstructured world, which we must work to structure.

Drawing on Merleau-Ponty's phenomenological analysis of the depth of the visual field, Lyotard posits an interruption of the supposedly flat system of language by this depth. This takes place through the deictic terms in language (such as here, now, I, you, this) which gain meaning by referring to temporal and spatial specificities in the world of the language-user. The discursive structure of language, therefore, needs reference at some points to sensual experience. The opposition is further deconstructed by essay Lyotard's insistence that our experience of ethics profits essays, space may also be structured in a discursive fashion. Space can be broken into ordered elements related to essay grader software, each other in a structured and organised way, such as by impact mapping it with a three dimensional grid. Software. A rigid theory of how the impact, body interacts with space, as Merleau-Ponty may arguably be accused of software, developing, also exhibits structuralist tendencies. This leads Lyotard to a criticism of phenomenology as well, on the grounds that its descriptions of the research, body in the world are also too structural and do not account for the disruptive force of the figural.

Lyotard sees Lacan's application of essay software, Saussurean linguistics to psychoanalysis as particularly worrisome. He attacks Lacan's famous dictum that 'the unconscious is structured like a language’ on the grounds that it is an how my homework over-rationalisation that posits representational structures to software, the exclusion of the figural. Research Paper. Returning to Freud, Lyotard develops a theory of libidinal forces as figural, as disruptive of reason and representation. Reason and representation are further critiqued in the libidinal philosophy of Libidinal Economy and the related essays, although here the very idea of critique itself is called into question, since insofar as it remains theory, it remains within the oppositional logic of representational rationality. Rather than opposing the libidinal to the rational, then, Lyotard develops his theory of dissimulation , the mutual enfoldment of the libidinal and the rational which is similar to the deconstructive logic of difference worked out in grader Discours, figure . Lyotard's main criticism of representation in the libidinal philosophy is sovereignty that it is nihilistic.

He draws an analogy between representational structures and Friedrich Nietzsche's characterisation of religion and transcendental philosophy as forms of nihilism. For Nietzsche religion is nihilistic because it places the software, highest values (as the ground for research all values) in a transcendent realm which cannot be accessed, thereby cutting us off from the highest values and devaluing the realm of essay grader, our actual experience. According to Lyotard, representational theory follows this model by placing the reality that representation refers to in a transcendent realm. Lyotard expresses this nihilism in profits terms of software, what he calls the Great zero. This zero is the divide between representation and what it represents. The Research Process. Representation is essay grader nihilistic because it can never close the divide between representation and reality, effectively cutting off representational thought from access to reality. What is represented is constantly deferred. For Lyotard semiotics is a prime example of representational nihilism, because the definition of the sign is that it replaces something (negating that which it replaces).

In the libidinal philosophy Lyotard does not reject theory and representation itself as necessarily nihilistic; rather, it is representational theory's own understanding of itself - how it represents itself – that is the focus of Lyotard’s attack. Research Paper Impact. Instead of opposing theory with alternative practises which are more libidinal, Lyotard asserts that theory itself is essay a libidinal practice which denies that it is libidinal. The nihilistic aspect of thesis, representational theory is this denial of the libidinal. Theory attempts to be detached and essay grader software, cold, and takes itself to The Research Process, be a stable and consistent structure which represents stable structures in the world. Lyotard's response to the nihilism of representational theory is not to propose an essay grader software other to it (which he believes is impossible), but to inscribe theory itself into the libidinal economy.

It is the concept of dissimulation which makes this possible. Systems dissimulate affects. Representational theory is itself a libidinal dispositif , and Lyotard accentuates the libidinal aspects of theory in order to on alopecia, combat its nihilistic tendencies. Against the nihilism of the semiotic sign Lyotard proposes a reinterpretation of the essay grader, sign: the tensor . The tensor is a duplicitous sign. One of essay, its sides (or potentialities) is the essay grader, semiotic sign; this side is the potential to be inscribed in profits an existing structure of meaning. The other side of the tensor contains residual potentialities for other meanings. This side of the tensor disrupts and escapes the system, flowing into software, new systems and structures.

The tensor expresses the theory of dissimulation at work in the sign. We might think of the tensor as the semiotic sign dissimulating affects which might disrupt its meaning and flow into new systems. The critique of reason and representation shift in Lyotard's postmodern philosophy from a focus on the figurative and libidinal forces which disrupt systems to an analysis of incommensurability in language and the limits of the rational faculty. Lyotard uses Wittgenstein's idea of language games to show that reason and representation cannot be totalizing. Thesis. The end of metanarratives means that no single overarching theory can pretend to account for everything. Essay Software. Rather, the postmodern condition is composed of fragmented language games attached to incommensurable forms of life. For Lyotard language is composed of a multiplicity of phrase regimes which cannot be translated into each other. Some are descriptive, some prescriptive, etc. Summary Strong Essay. These phrase regimes have no outside criteria for comparison.

Between them lies the differend, an absolute difference which cannot be reconciled. In Lyotard's postmodern philosophy, then, reason and representation are set limits by essay grader software the incommensurability of language games; it is not possible for reason to understand everything through a representational system. In the postmodern philosophy events are analyzed as phrases, and again Lyotard asserts that events exceed representation in that no representational system can account for all phrases. Furthermore, Lyotard's postmodernism draws attention to the limits of on alopecia, reason through its focus on the sublime . The differend is experienced as a feeling of not being able to find the words to express something; it signals the limits of one language game or phrase regime and the attempt to move on to another one. Lyotard analyses this experience in terms of Kant's idea of the sublime, which is itself an experience of the limits of reason. In Kant's philosophy, the essay grader, sublime is the mixed feeling of pleasure and pain that we feel in on alopecia the face of something of great magnitude and grandeur. We can have an idea of such things, but we cannot match up that idea with a direct sensory intuition since sublime objects surpass our sensory abilities. An example of essay software, a sublime object for how my homework Kant would be a mountain; we can have an idea of a mountain, but not a sensory intuition of essay, it as a whole.

We feel pain at the frustration of our faculties to fully grasp the sublime object, but a pleasure as well in the attempt to do so. Lyotard extends the notion of the sublime from that which is absolutely great to all things which confound our abilities to synthesize them into paper impact, knowledge. Thus the sublime is situated at the differend between language games and phrase regimes; we feel a mixture of pleasure and pain in software the frustration of not knowing how to follow on from a phrase but feeling that there is something important that must be put into words. In Lyotard's postmodern philosophy the sublime is the feeling that indicates the limits of reason and representation. Like many other prominent French thinkers of his generation (such as Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida and sovereignty essay, Gilles Deleuze), Lyotard develops critiques of the subject and of humanism. Essay. Lyotard's misgivings about the subject as a central epistemological category can be understood in terms of research paper impact, his concern for difference, multiplicity, and the limits of organisational systems. Software. For Lyotard the subject as traditionally understood in The Research Process philosophy acts as a central point for the organisation of knowledge, eliminating difference and disorderly elements. Lyotard seeks to software, dethrone the subject from this organisational role, which in effect means decentring it as a philosophical category. Rule And Parliamentary. He sees the subject not as primary, foundational, and central, but as one element among others which should be examined by thought.

Furthermore, he does not see the subject as a transcendent and immutable entity, but as produced by wider social and grader software, political forces. In the libidinal philosophy, the subject is construed as one organisational structure or dispositif which channels and exploits libidinal energies. Like other structures which threaten to paper impact, be hegemonic, Lyotard proposes its disruption through the software, release of the libidinal forces it contains which are not consistent with it. That is, the opening of the rule and parliamentary sovereignty essay, subject to forces which are deemed irrational, such as feelings and desires. Furthermore, Lyotard's insistence that the freeing of dissimulated libidinal forces can only be passively done and not actively controlled is grader motivated by his identification of summary strong response, wilful acts with the organisational subject.

In Lyotard's postmodern philosophy, the fragmentation of grader, language games also means the social subject fragments and seems to dissolve. The subject cannot be seen as a master of language games, a unifying power, but is ethics essays rather a node at which different incommensurable language games intersect. Lyotard furthermore asserts that avant-garde art works of the twentieth century do not reinforce the subject, but call it into question through the unsettling effect of the essay grader, sublime. Humanism is also called into question in Lyotard's later philosophy through the term Inhuman. Summary Strong Essay. Lyotard objects to humanism on the grounds that it depends upon a definition of the essay, human which is exclusionary of difference. Ethics Profits Essays. He asks why, if humanism is correct that there is a human nature, we are not born human but rather have to go through a terroristic education in order to become acceptably human. The term Inhuman has two meanings for grader software Lyotard. Firstly, it refers to the dehumanising effects of summary strong, science and technology in society. Essay Grader Software. Secondly, it refers to essay, those potentially positive forces that the idea of the human tries to repress or exclude, but which inevitably return with disruptive effects. Essay. Lyotard tries to show the limit of the humanistic ideal by imagining a science-fiction-like scenario in which, in 4.5 billion years time when our sun explodes, the The Research, human race will have developed the ability to survive without the Earth.

In one sense this survival is the humanist dream (since survival is essential for the central importance of the human race in grader the universe), but in another sense it might constitute the end of the strong response essay, human, since the changes required to survive in space would be so radical as to erase anything we currently recognise as human. On the one hand Lyotard criticises the dehumanising effects of the progress of science and technology that are themselves bound up with the essay grader, idea of human progress, and on the other he affirms the dehumanising forces that open up our thinking to more than a simple definition of the human. Lyotard develops some reflections on summary strong response science and technology within the scope of his postmodern philosophy [see The Postmodern Condition]. The changing status of science and technology is a primary feature of the postmodern condition, and Lyotard calls certain new forms of science postmodern. His concern with an ontology of events and a politics of competing representations of those events underlies his theorization of science and essay, technology in postmodernity, in which the collapse of The Research, metanarratives has meant the proliferation of multiple, incommensurable language games (of which science is only one). We should interpret Lyotard as taking this to be a good thing, since such a proliferation more accurately reflects his general ontological view of the world as composed of events which give rise to multiple interpretations, and which can never be accurately captured by a single narrative. Essay Software. Metanarratives do violence to alternative representations of events that are valid in their own right.

Lyotard sees the on alopecia, rise of capital, science and technology linked through legitimation by performativity as a similar threat, however. He calls this threat terrorism: the threat of exclusion from playing a language game. The principle of legitimation functioning in capitalism is efficiency or performativity [see The Postmodern Condition], and this principle attempts to be hegemonic. Science and technology are prime candidates for this attempted hegemony, since they contribute to the growth of capital. Lyotard accepts that performativity is essay grader software a legitimate criterion for strong technology, but argues that it is not proper to science.

He develops his argument around what he calls postmodern science, by which he means recent sciences such as Benoit Mandelbrot's fractal theory and Rene Thom’s catastrophe theory that search for essay grader instabilities rather than regularities in paper impact systems. Following to some extent philosophers of science Thomas Kuhn and essay grader software, Paul Feyerabend, Lyotard argues that the performativity criterion does not accurately capture the kind of knowledge developed in paper impact the sciences nor the way such knowledge develops. For Lyotard, science is a language game to which legitimation by performativity is essay not proper. Such performativity merely subordinates science to capital. According to of law, Lyotard, it is the idea of a deterministic system that allows performativity in science, since determinism allows the prediction and calculation of input/output values.

Postmodern science, however, does not function according to a legitimation by performativity precisely because it undermines determinism. Postmodern science searches for instabilities in systems, undermining predictability. Lyotard cites thermodynamics as the beginning of performativity in grader software terms of determinism, and suggests that quantum mechanics and atomic physics have limited the applicability of this principle. Postmodern sciences, which concern themselves with undecidables, the limits of how my homework, precise control, conflicts characterized by incomplete information, fracta, catastrophes, and pragmatic paradoxes, continue to essay, undermine performativity in the form of determinism. Furthermore, postmodern science is The Research undermining legitimation by performativity by essay retheorizing the way science itself develops: science does not develop in a progressive fashion and towards a unified knowledge, but in a discontinuous and paradoxical manner, undermining previous paradigms by the development of new ones. This is how my homework what Lyotard calls legitimation by paralogy. He suggests that science may be undergoing a paradigm shift from deterministic performativity to the paralogy of instabilities. Yet this is only a possibility: performativity still looms large on the horizon. Lyotard suggests science could go either way. Essay. He champions paralogy over The Research Process, performativity, since it contributes to healthy research in the sciences and undermines the hegemonic control capital attempts to have. Postmodern science is about the generation of new ideas rather than the efficient application of existing knowledge.

Lyotard is also concerned about the social impact of science and technology in postmodernity. He sees the performativity criterion as applying not just to science, technology, and capital, but to the State as well. According to the performativity criterion, society is seen as a system which must aim for efficient functioning, and this efficiency is a kind of terror which threatens to exclude inefficient elements. Furthermore, in post-industrial society information has become a primary mode of production, and Lyotard is concerned that in the interests of maximising profits information will become increasingly privatised by corporations. He proposes the possibility of IBM having exclusive control of databases and satellites. In response to these threats, Lyotard proposes that the public be given free access to memory and data banks. This will allow computerization to contribute to knowledge functioning by paralogy rather than by performativity, and to the free functioning of society as a set of heterogenous elements rather than an grader software efficient system, removing the threat of terror.

Lyotard's early political commitments were to revolutionary socialism and a relatively orthodox Marxism (see Biography and Early Works (b) Algeria). Despite his radical disillusion with these early political commitments, however, a strong political concern remains a central feature of all of Lyotard's mature works. Lyotard’s notion of the political, however, must be understood as quite distinct from that employed in thesis on alopecia much traditional and contemporary politics and political theory. Having rejected the possibility of a politics based on a single theory that will accurately capture the truth of all social events (such as Marxism), Lyotard's later concern is to do justice to essay grader, multiple social realities. He is concerned with the free proliferation of heterogenous elements in society, and for him the institutions of politics and traditional political theory limit multiplicities and differences. How My Homework. Lyotard's politics can be traced back to his general concern for events and the limits of representation. There is a strong correlation between his concern that events are not done justice by any one theoretical, representational system, and software, his concern that events of political import are not done justice by the way any particular political party or philosophy represents them. The politics of the libidinal philosophy revolves around a nuanced reading of Marx and a duplicitous relation to capitalism. While Lyotard has given up on the possibility and desirability of a socialist revolution, he is still interested in the deployment of revolutionary desires. Libidinal Economy contains a reading of summary strong response essay, Marx's texts as works of art, an emphasis which seeks to release the libidinal aspects of Marx, the desire for revolution.

Lyotard's interpretation of capitalism in software the libidinal economy sees two possibilities inherent in capitalism, each entwined and inextricable. On the one hand, capitalism is how my homework a good system for the circulation of libidinal energies; it encourages enterprising explorations of and investments in software new areas. On the research paper impact, other hand, capitalism tends to hoard up libidinal energy into structured and essay, regulated systems, restricting its flow. This latter tendency is at work in the capitalist exploitation that Marx rallied against. Lyotard interprets these two tendencies of capitalism in terms of the theory of dissimulation. For Lyotard, there is ethics no possible society that is not open to the desire to exploit and hoard libidinal energy in essay software the way the capitalist does. How My Homework. This means that there is essay grader software no utopian society free from exploitation, either pre-capitalist or post-revolutionary. Lyotard's libidinal politics is and parliamentary sovereignty essay not aimed at overthrowing capitalism, then, but of working within it to release the libidinal energies dissimulated within its structures. Practically, this also means working within existing political institutions, but passively, so as to release as much desire dissimulated within those institutions as possible, without constraining desires through planned outcomes. Lyotard's postmodern politics involves the attempt to essay software, rethink the how my homework, political after the death of metanarratives such as Marxism and liberalism.

Lyotard rejects all dominant political ideologies as master-narratives which exclude minorities and do violence to the heterogenous nature of social reality. This rejection is manifested in the philosophy of software, paganism that preceded Lyotard's postmodernism. Here, the notion of impiety associated with the pagan is a rejection of “pious” political ideologies which unquestioningly assert principles and values as universally and unquestioningly true. In its mature form, Lyotard's postmodern politics deals with the concern for justice and the need to bear witness to strong response essay, the differend. Essay. In the case of how my homework, a differend, a wrong is done to a party who cannot phrase their hurt (See Postmodernism (c) The Differend). For Lyotard, no just resolution of a differend is possible. Because of the radical incommensurability of phrase regimes in the case of a differend, any resolution would only assert the legitimacy of one phrase regime at the cost of silencing the other, thus deepening the software, wrong.

Justice demands a witnessing and a remembering of the thesis, fact that there is a differend. Essay Grader. This means presenting the fact that a wrong has been done which cannot itself be presented. This is then the contradictory task of presenting the unpresentable, a task Lyotard sees as best accomplished in the arena of art. Lyotard was a prolific writer on both art and rule of law and parliamentary sovereignty, philosophical aesthetics. An aesthetic theory focusing on the avant-garde deeply informs both major phases of his philosophical thought (the libidinal and the postmodern). Examples from particular movements in art and individual artists and software, writers are common in his philosophical works, and in addition he wrote a number of books on individual artists, including Georges Guiffrey, Albert Ayme, Gian-franco Baruchello, Jacques Monory, Valerio Adami, Shusaku Arakawa, and Daniel Buren. Essays. Lyotard also organised an essay software art exhibition, Les immateriaux , at the Centre Georges Pompidou in 1985. The exhibition collected works which explored connections between the media, art, space, and matter. Art has a privileged place in Lyotard's philosophy of events, since it calls attention to the limits of representation.

In the earlier phase of his work, art is celebrated for its figural and libidinal aspects that oppose and deregulate systems of discourse and rational thought. Impact. In Lyotard's postmodern period, art is privileged for its sublime effects and the attention it calls to the differend. It is essay grader not all kinds of art that Lyotard celebrates; he is particularly interested in the avant-garde. Some forms of rule and parliamentary, art can reinforce structured systems of meaning, but the special feature of avant-garde art is to disrupt expectations, conventions, and established orders of reception. In Discours, figure , visual arts are associated with the figural and the process of seeing. However, poetry is also privileged as a manifestation of the figural in essay grader the way it upsets established orders of meaning, following Lyotard's move from the figural as simply sensuous to the figural as disruptive force in any system. The libidinal philosophy engages with art on thesis the level of its affective force: shapes and colours act as tensors within the system of signification that the artwork forms, and essay grader software, unlike more rigidly structured systems, artworks more readily release their affective energy into different systems of interpretation, reception, and influence. Furthermore, the process of painting exemplifies the ambiguously passive yet active way in which Lyotard sees the release of libidinal energies as most effective.

A painting is not a rigidly pre-planned structured piece of work in which the outcome is determined beforehand, but a process of experimentation. In this process, affects are inscribed on a surface without being strictly controlled by an actively willing and organising subject. The most important artists for Lyotard in this period include Paul Cezanne, Marcel Duchamp, and Robert Delaunay. In Lyotard's philosophy of postmodernism and the differend, he develops an aesthetic theory of postmodern art. It is essential to distinguish Lyotard's concept of postmodern art from other ideas of postmodern art. There are many theories of postmodernism in thesis on alopecia the arts, literature, architecture, and other areas of cultural practise. Other theorists (such as Jean Baudrillard) have also proposed aesthetic theories of postmodernism which differ from Lyotard's understanding of postmodernism in grader software the arts. In particular, Lyotard's postmodern art must be distinguished from the stylistic trends often called postmodern in the art world (such as the anti-modern return to representational realism or the simulationism of Peter Halley, Sherrie Levine, Jeff Koons and rule and parliamentary essay, others). Lyotard's concept of grader software, postmodernism in essays the arts relates more to what is usually called modernism in the arts.

It focuses on the experimentation of the avant-garde, and Lyotard takes as privileged examples Abstract Expressionism and grader software, particularly the how my homework, work of Barnett Newman. Lyotard makes his own distinction between the grader, categories of modern and postmodern in art, however, in a couple of ways. Firstly, postmodernism is said to be the avant-garde movement always at work within modernism itself. It is that which is so new and different it can only be called modern in retrospect. In this sense, postmodernism is the ethics essays, spirit of grader, experimentation that drives modernism into ever-changing forms; it is the thesis, disruptive force that unsettles accepted rules for essay software reception and meaning.

For Lyotard something must be postmodern before it can become modern. That is, it must be unsettling before it becomes an accepted norm. Secondly, however, according to Lyotard postmodern avant-garde art never entirely loses its ability to rule, disturb. This power of disturbance is grader software related to rule of law and parliamentary, the feeling of the sublime, and it is an indication of the differend. In this context, modern and postmodern art can be distinguished in the following way. Both are concerned with the unpresentable: that which cannot be presented (or represented) in grader art.

Modern art, however, presents the fact that there is an unpresentable, while postmodern art attempts to present the paper, unpresentable. This is a paradoxical task, and arouses in the viewer the mixture of pleasure and essay grader, pain that is the sublime. Lyotard takes Barnett Newman's work as a paragon of postmodern, avant-garde art. Newman consciously seeks to achieve the sublime in his paintings, and Lyotard believes he achieves this by making his viewers feel that something profound and important is going on in his works, but without being able to identify what this is. Postmodern art has a political importance for Lyotard, since it can call attention to differends through the feeling of the sublime, showing us that a wrong has been done. Bearing witness to the differend is the primary focus of Lyotard's postmodern politics, and art is the privileged arena in ethics profits which this witnessing takes place.

Two of Lyotard's latest works were on the French writer, activist, and politician, Andre Malraux. Signed, Malraux is an unconventional autobiography. Lyotard's philosophical commitments distance him from the presuppositions underlying the traditional genre of biography, where the subject is assumed to be unified and the text is grader software taken to represent the truth about that subject. Lyotard instead takes Malraux as a set of heterogenous elements (texts, political activities, personal relationships, etc), which he, as author, consciously unifies through the response essay, creation of a fictional character. Lyotard's interest in Malraux may be explained through the commonalities they share, in particular a problematic relation to the political and an attempted solution to essay, this problem through art. Research Paper. Soundproof Room: Malraux's Anti-Aesthetics situates Malraux’s work in a nihilist and abjectivist tradition of software, writers that includes Louis Celine, Georges Bataille, Antonin Artaud, and Albert Camus.

What these writers share is a concern with the decline of belief in objective values (the death of essays, God) and the strangeness and nausea of the human body. The Confession of Augustine was incomplete at the time of Lyotard's death, and has been published posthumously in partial form, with working notes appended. At first glance this somewhat cryptic, poetic, and quasi-religious work seems to bear little resemblance to any other piece in Lyotard's oeuvre. Essay Grader Software. On closer inspection, however, the themes Lyotard works through in his reading of research paper, Augustine's Confessions can be recognised as those already touched on software in earlier works. The discussion of signs recalls Lyotard's analysis of the nihilism of semiotics in Libidinal Economy , where he refers to The Research Process, Augustine, and what is perhaps the essay grader, main theme of this work - Augustine's writing as a study in ethics profits the phenomenology of time – is referred to in the earlier paper The Sublime and the Avant-Garde.

Lyotard reads Augustine as the precursor to the phenomenological studies of time developed by Edmund Husserl, Martin Heidegger, and Jean-Paul Sartre. This study problematises the temporal mode of the 'now', the present, in grader its relations to the past and summary essay, the future. The problematic of essay grader software, time is a recurring feature in Lyotard's work, and thus The Confession of essays, Augustine can be seen as a further investigation into one of Lyotard's ongoing concerns. 11. References and Further Reading.

The following is a list of books by and about Lyotard available in software English. For further bibliographical references, including further original French editions, journal articles, and contributions by and about Lyotard, see Lyotard’s Peregrinations and Joan Nordquist's Jean-Francois Lyotard: A Bibliography .

SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips. It’s finally that day you’ve circled on essay grader software, your calendar – the day when ACT scores are released. You log into ACTstudent and look at your essay score. The Research? There's an 8 for essay grader, your overall Writing score as well as four different domain scores of The Research 6, 8, 9, and 10. What does your ACT Writing score mean and software how is your ACT essay scored? This article will shed some light on both of these things. Feature image credit: eppny by ethics profits essays woodleywonderworks, used under CC BY 2.0/Resized from essay grader software original.

A Quick Look into ACT Essay Scoring. On test day, you complete the first four sections of the test and write your essay. What happens next? Once ACT, Inc. Paper Impact? receives your essay, it is scanned and uploaded to an essay grading program for graders to score. Essay? In addition, ACT.org states that “[a]n image of your essay will be available to your high school and thesis on alopecia the colleges to grader, which you have ACT report your scores from that test date.” Each ACT essay is scored by two different graders on a scale of 1-6 across four different domains, for impact, a total score out of essay grader 12 in each domain. These domain scores are then averaged into a total score out of 12. NOTE : The ACT Writing Test from September 2015-June 2016 had a slightly different scoring scale; instead of averaging all the The Research Process, domain scores to get a total ACT Writing score out of 12, the domain scores were combined and scaled into a total score out of essay software 36.

One June 28th, 2016, however, ACT, Inc. How My Homework? announced that starting in September of 2016, the grader software, Writing test would no longer be scored on and parliamentary, a scale of 1-36, due to essay grader software, the confusion this had caused. This change to out-of-12 ACT Writing scores is still different from the pre-September 2015 ACT essay scoring, since that system relied on graders giving the Process, essay one holistic score (rather than 4 analytical domain scores). Because the ACT Writing is optional, your essay score will not be factored into your ACT composite score. It will, however, be factored into essay software your English-Language Arts subscore, which averages your English, Reading, and Writing scores and paper rounds up to the nearest whole number. So what are the four domains that your essay is scored across? Scores in this domain relate to grader software, your discussion of the perspectives on the essay topic. Ethics Profits Essays? 2. Development and software Support. Scores in this domain reflect how you develop your points with logical reasoning or specific examples. Scores in this domain relate to rule and parliamentary sovereignty essay, your essay's organization on both a macro (overall structure) and micro (within each paragraph) level. Essay? Scores in essay this domain depend on your command of standard written English (including grammar and punctuation); variety in sentence structure and vocabulary is grader software also rewarded in this domain.

For more on what goes into each domain score, read my article on the ACT Writing Rubric. ACT Essay Scoring: Official Policy. Every essay is graded by two graders , who must score the essay within one point of paper impact each other. If the graders’ scores disagree by more than one point, a third grader will be brought in to resolve the issue. It's currently unclear whether this means a greater-than-one-point difference in essay grader software domain score or overall essay score between graders – stay tuned for more information. While your essay receives scores in each of the four domain areas, the domains themselves are graded holistically . For example, in the Language Use domain, there are no guidelines that instruct scorers to deduct 1 point for every 10 grammatical errors. Another important part of official ACT essay scoring policy is that factual accuracy is not important. Ethics Profits Essays? ACT essay graders are not supposed to grader, score essays based on whether or not the facts are accurate. The point of the ACT essay is NOT to write a research paper with well-documented facts on rule and parliamentary, a topic.

Instead, you're asked to grader software, argue in rule of law sovereignty favor of a perspective on grader software, the topic and compare your perspective to the other perspectives given by how my homework the ACT in the essay prompt; as long as your examples support your arguments, it doesn't matter if the examples aren't 100% true. While each domain is graded holistically, there are a few key actions you must take if you want to grader software, score above a 2/6 in each domain. I've extracted these ACTions via analysis of the essay scoring rubric as well as through scrutiny of the sample essays the essays, ACT provides on its website. As I go through each domain, I'll be using the following official sample ACT prompt for essay grader, any examples: Many of the goods and services we depend on daily are now supplied by thesis on alopecia intelligent, automated machines rather than human beings. Robots build cars and other goods on assembly lines, where once there were human workers. Many of our phone conversations are now conducted not with people but with sophisticated technologies. We can now buy goods at essay grader a variety of stores without the help of a human cashier. Automation is generally seen as a sign of essays progress, but what is essay lost when we replace humans with machines?

Given the accelerating variety and prevalence of intelligent machines, it is research paper impact worth examining the essay grader, implications and meaning of their presence in our lives. What we lose with the replacement of people by machines is some part of our own humanity. Even our mundane daily encounters no longer require from us basic courtesy, respect, and impact tolerance for other people. Machines are good at low-skill, repetitive jobs, and at high-speed, extremely precise jobs. In both cases they work better than humans. Software? This efficiency leads to a more prosperous and progressive world for everyone. Intelligent machines challenge our long-standing ideas about what humans are or can be. This is good because it pushes both humans and machines toward new, unimagined possibilities. Write a unified, coherent essay about the increasing presence of intelligent machines. In your essay, be sure to.

clearly state your own perspective on the issue and analyze the strong, relationship between your perspective and at least one other perspective develop and support your ideas with reasoning and examples organize your ideas clearly and logically communicate your ideas effectively in standard written English. Essay? Your perspective may be in full agreement with any of the others, in partial agreement, or wholly different. You must: Have a clear thesis in your essay. Because you are writing a persuasive essay, it is imperative that you make your position on on alopecia, the topic clear . Grader Software? Otherwise, how can you persuade someone that your view is the correct view? Since you have limited time and have to compare your perspective with at least one of the other perspectives anyway, choose one of the ethics profits essays, three perspectives given to you by the ACT to argue for in your thesis. You must: Discuss the relationship between your perspective and at least one of the perspectives that the ACT mentions in the prompt. The prompt explicitly states that you need to analyze the relationship between your perspective and at least one other perspective.

If you fail to discuss how your perspective relates to any of the given perspectives, it will be very difficult to score above a 2 or 3 in essay software the Ideas and Analysis Domain. With the above Intelligent Machines prompt, for instance, you'd need to compare your position to at least one of the The Research Process, following: how machines cause us to lose our own humanity (Perspective One), how they are efficient and create prosperity (Perspective Two), and how machines challenge us and essay grader software push us to new possibilities (Perspective Three). You must: Support your discussion of each perspective with either reasoning or example. There are a couple of ways you can support your arguments. One way is to use reasoning , which tends to be more abstract.

For example, if you were using reasoning to support your argument for strong essay, Perspective Two, you could discuss how machines taking over lower skill jobs frees up humans to do higher skilled tasks that require more creative thinking. The other way you can support your points is through use of specific examples . For example, to support Perspective Two, you could use the example of how the mass-production of clothes has made it less expensive for everyone to own things like good boots. For a high score in this domain, you must: Discuss both positive and negative aspects of the perspectives you disagree with as well. In order to essay, achieve a high score in this domain, you must show that you understand the complexities of the issue. The main way to do this is to discuss the pros as well as the cons of the perspectives you disagree with. For instance, if you agree with Perspective Two in the above prompt (machines make us more efficient and that’s good), when you discuss Perspective One you should provide a brief instance of research paper impact that perspective being sort of essay grader software true before moving on to show how it is not as true as Perspective Two. Learn how to juggle both sides of a perspective in The Research Process our article on how to write an ACT essay step-by-step. You must: Group your ideas logically. Writing an organized essay will make it easier for the essay graders to follow your logic and reasoning. Grouping your ideas logically can mean separating out ideas into different paragraphs (for instance, putting each perspective into its own paragraph), or it can involve clearly linking different aspects of the same idea in the same paragraph . No matter how you plan out your essay, try to make it as easy as possible to follow your arguments.

Being able to communicate clearly is a key skill for college and life in general, so it makes sense that it would be tested on the ACT (a college entrance exam). ACT essay graders care more about the clarity of your thoughts than the fanciness of your language. Clarity of writing normally entails using proper grammar and clear, non-convoluted sentence structures. Throwing in fancy vocab won’t get you anywhere if it makes things less clear instead of more clear (I've seen this happen too many times to count). In addition, re-reading and revising your essay can help you make sure you are saying what you mean. Example of an unclear sentence: Machines are more practical because they are cheaper and essay software so you can hire less people to do the work and pay less money overall and so you have a better profit margin. Example of a clearer sentence (revised): Machines are more practical and cheaper in the long run because you can higher fewer people to get the same work done.

TURNS out, the steam engine was more practical (and cheaper in summary essay the long run) than a thousand people pushing and grader software pulling a train by how my homework hand. What Does This Mean For Your ACT Essay? Be clear up front what your perspective on the issue is. Don't hide your thesis. Essay? Make it obvious when you’re discussing each perspective (and make sure to discuss the relationship between your perspective and at least one other ). Support each argument with reasoning and/or specific examples. How My Homework? Take time to plan so you can write an organized essay. Focus on writing clearly before you start worrying about grader software using advanced vocabulary. You've learned what your essay needs to include.

But how you do you decode the prompt? Follow along as I teach you how to attack ACT Writing prompts. Want to rule of law and parliamentary essay, improve your ACT score by 4 points? Check out our best-in-class online ACT prep program. We guarantee your money back if you don't improve your ACT score by 4 points or more. Our program is entirely online, and it customizes what you study to essay grader, your strengths and weaknesses. If you liked this ACT Writing lesson, you'll love our program. Along with more detailed lessons, you'll get your ACT essays hand-graded by a master instructor who will give you customized feedback on how you can improve. Paper? We'll also give you a step-by-step program to grader software, follow so you'll never be confused about what to study next. Check out of law sovereignty, our 5-day free trial: Have friends who also need help with test prep?

Share this article! Laura graduated magna cum laude from Wellesley College with a BA in Music and Psychology, and earned a Master's degree in Composition from the Longy School of Music of Bard College. Essay? She scored 99 percentile scores on the SAT and thesis on alopecia GRE and loves advising students on how to excel in high school. You should definitely follow us on social media. You'll get updates on our latest articles right on your feed. Follow us on all 3 of our social networks: Have any questions about essay grader software this article or other topics? Ask below and we'll reply! Series: How to Get 800 on Each SAT Section: Series: How to Get to 600 on Each SAT Section: Series: How to Get 36 on Each ACT Section: Our hand-selected experts help you in rule of law and parliamentary sovereignty essay a variety of other topics! Looking for Graduate School Test Prep?

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essay writing biz How to write your best essay ever! English biz has separate guides for each of the types of writing you'll meet on your course but this particular guide is grader, probably the most important of them all. It will show you how to construct an effective, well-structured argument-based essay. How do you feel when you're given an essay to paper impact write? Do you fill with f-f-fear? W-w-wobble with worry? P-p-pour with perspiration? Well, here's a way that make the whole process more satisfying and enjoyable!

Okay, he's off his rocker (but we won't worry as he's not real!). He's yet to discover that writing an essay is essay software, never going to be an easy task, even for the best writers. But you're about to find out thesis on alopecia how it can be made much more straightforward , interesting and effective . Oh, and likely to gain you a significantly higher grade, too! So that's something to feel, well. just a little bit excited about! It's important to grader software understand one thing before we start: unlike a maths or science question, an English essay question has no single 'correct' answer. You can breathe easy on that one. It's just not like that. In an English essay there is no one 'answer' and nothing to rule of law sovereignty essay 'prove'. That isn't to say there aren't wrong answers - there are. These are those based on 'mis-readings' of your texts.

But what your teacher or examiner wants is a reasonable, informed, explained and well-supported view . Grader! In a nutshell, that's it. An essay requires this from of law sovereignty essay you: a succinct opening in which you give an overview of your response to essay grader the essay question. This is a kind of of law and parliamentary sovereignty essay, 'super-condensed' response that sums up your whole response in a line or two. you can add to the opening sentences, a very brief explanation of wh at aspects of the text brought you to software this view . If you can give, say, four - six aspects, then you are setting out the coming structure of your essay . There is no better way to begin an essay than like this. From this point on you will never be left scratching your head wondering what to write next.

the remainder of the essay is how my homework, merely a series of essay, PEE paragraphs that, point by point, argue the case for what you have just stated. Each point (P) needs its own paragraph and to have support (E) from the text (either a quotation, or an explanation of some aspect of form or structure ) along with with an explanation (E) of how the summary strong response essay text brought you to such a view, the effects it created, the methods the author used to grader software create the effects and, finally, its relevance to the text, that is, the author's purposes . That's it. Done and dusted! More detail below if needed. The secret of a good essay? Make it an argument ! An effective essay is thesis on alopecia, a piece of writing that makes a strong and well-supported case for a stated viewpoint . Grader! The view it makes the case for is your response to the essay title or question . You'll have arrived at after a couple of of law and parliamentary, readings of the text, more if a poem, and one of which will be a so-called 'close-reading' when you annotate the essay grader text carefully in line with whatever the essay question asks, seeking out support as quotations or explanations of useful effects created by form and structure . So your essay starts with a clear statement of your opinion . It could be something like, as an summary strong response example: 'Shakespeare's theme of violence in Romeo and Juliet is shown especially effectively through the opening scene, as well as through the characters of Mercutio and Tybalt and an analysis of these three dramatic aspects will form the basis of this essay.' The opening overview is sometimes called a thesis statement . The 'thesis' is your response, i.e. the heart of your 'argument'. It's what the essay goes on to explain and support to show that it is software, a view that is well - considered, based on the text and reasonable to hold . Essays are about opinions, not facts. This point is of law and parliamentary essay, crucial to take on board. There is never a straightforward right answer to essay an essay q uestion or title. How My Homework! There are wrong answers, of course - caused through, for example, misinterpreting the text; but the 'answer' to an essay question will always be a point of view . Essays deal in opinions, not facts . This is software, why your teacher is looking to read your views and why you have come to think in this particular way.

How do you arrive at a 'thesis' or overview? This is the tough part - there's no getting away from that. Not least, this is because it puts to the test your knowledge of the text and your understanding of the profits essays essay title or question . The good news is that when it's done and done well, the remainder of the essay becomes much more straightforward and far more interesting to write, perhaps even a little exciting! The Outline Structure for an Effective Essay. As already stated above, this first paragraph needs to open with a clearly stated summary of your whole 'answer' along with an equally brief summary of the aspects of the text you'll be analysing to show your stated view is sound . It is essay grader software, these early sentences that provide the how my homework major 'signposts' that give your essay and its general direction. Importantly, you need to set a confident tone early on in the essay. This can be done by grader adding in Process, a very few details to show you've grasped the text's big picture . This should be a brief comment (brevity is everything in the opening paragraph) on the major details of the story (poem or whatever) along with an equally brief statement of any relevant context , (that is the situation you feel brought the writer to want to write their text, including key aspects of their social , cultural and literary contexts ). This will, though, always need to be focused on the needs of the essay question . Notice how you are constantly seeking to avoid waffle and generalised 'bolted on' comments ; instead, you need to keep all you write tightly focused on essay grader, the needs of the ethics essay title or question.

This is the bulk of the essay. It is a series of grader, paragraphs each introduced with a new clear important and wholly relevant point . Sadly, it's all too easy to open a in a way that inspires little confidence and which drifts from the essay question or argument. Response Essay! Avoid this by opening each and every paragraph in a way that is essay grader, clearly and directly developing the ethics essays essay's 'answer' or argument . If you started by stating the four-six aspects you'll be covering in your essay, then you'll have no difficulty knowing what to write in essay, these body paragraphs. This is where you restate, in a different form, your opening argument and give a brief list of the major points you have made along with a comment about the wider implications and relevance of what you have found. It will help to think back to the imaginary classroom situation. What would follow on from the highly condensed 'answer' you gave to your teacher? Your teacher might say, 'Good, that's a fair view to research paper impact hold - but why do you think that?

Show me from the essay software text itself what made you think that way.' In the written essay, you'll need to be providing a whole lot more 'evidence' mainly in the form of quotations each one itself supported by how my homework a commentary derived from an analysis of the software quotation's literary and linguistic content . However, with a central and guiding argument starting off and flowing through the entire essay, it now becomes much easier to search the text for aspects and quotations that will provide good quality evidence to summary support the essay's points. Each point and supporting quotation needs to be followed by an analysis and grader software, comment . Some teachers call this the P.E.E. ( point example explanation ) or P.Q.C. ( point quotation comment ) system. This is needed to explain how and why the aspect of the text or the quotation 'works' within the context of the essay question and the originally stated argument. Certain key questions need to summary strong response essay be answered concerning each quotation used: What techniques have been used to make the language of the quotation effective? This means discussing the writer's methods , e.g. through the creation of realistic dialogue; the use of an effective metaphor; through vivid description; onomatopoeia; alliteration; effective stage directions, etc. How does the method used affect the reader's understanding of the text and its themes (e.g. 'the effect of this passage is to essay software create a sense of really being there for research, the reader. ')? Why was this method used (i.e. what was the writer's purpose )? E.g. 'At this point on the story the author wants to gain the reader's attention in order to begin exploring the overall theme of essay grader software, injustice. ' MARK GRABBING TIP No.

1! Begin all of your paragraphs in Process, such a way that it is absolutely clear you are focused on essay grader software, the essay question and its requirements, thus building up your overall argument. This will keep the essay on track and avoid the plague of poor essays: wandering, digression and of law and parliamentary sovereignty essay, waffle! What if your essay title isn't in grader, the form of a question? When considered as a question, you will often find it is ethics profits, easier to generate that all-important single main point of grader software, view to it - the main idea upon which you will then base the remainder of ethics profits, your essay . Here is an example of a main idea succinctly stated (i.e. thesis statement ) that could be used to create an argument essay from the above question: The remainder of this - or any other - essay must then be no more than a linked series of essay grader, points with each point explained , developed and supported in a paragraph of its own . These points must all be directly related to summary the main idea you have already explained in the opening paragraph, which itself is your response to the essay title or question. Remember that each point - each paragraph - must set out to explain , develop and essay software, support some aspect of your over-riding main idea and nothing more . In this example, the paragraph that follows the how my homework opening paragraph - the first of essay software, what is called the body paragraphs of your essay - could be based on of law and parliamentary sovereignty, the point that the theme of ambition is software, shown through what Macbeth and Lady Macbeth are given by Shakespeare to say and do in Process, Act One of the play. The third paragraph of software, your essay - its second body paragraph - might then explore, develop and support how the theme of ambition is shown through these two characters in some part of Act 2, and essays, so on.

Below you'll find lots more detail and ideas for writing an effective essay but with luck, the above will have given you the basic idea. Aim to 'integrate' words or phrases from the text you are studying directly into your own sentences (still using quotation marks, of course). Don't overdo this effective technique, but used sparingly, this use of 'embedded' quotations can help create a very impressive style, one that suggests you have a good grasp of the text and the essay question. Here are some examples of software, how to The Research Process use embedded quotations. Essay! The first is from the opening of John Steinbeck's novel, 'Of Mice and Men': 'Small and quick' George is presented by Steinbeck as a character in paper, complete contrast to his friend, the lumbering and 'shapeless' Lennie. Here is essay, a similarly embedded quotation from J B Priestley's 'An Inspector Calls':

As the Inspector says, 'We don't live alone' and this is an important message Priestley gives his audience. Finally, see how this can be done using John Agard's poem, 'Half-Caste': Perhaps Agard also wants his reader to how my homework 'come back tomorrow' with a different attitude towards those they might feel are in software, any way different from profits themselves. MORE TIPS AND MORE DETAIL! Essays take a great deal of effort and time and so deserve careful preparation. T he most common failing examiners find is a lack of understanding of the text on essay software, which the essay is based. This is to take the road signpos ted 'Failure'.

But you're heading elsewhere. So. get to know your text well. You won't succeed if you don't! I f you struggle with the text, read it through again with a study guide to ethics profits essays hand. Also, talk the text over with friends or your teacher. There is more help with specific texts here . Many essay writers fail to grader software create an initial main viewpoint or drift from this single focus.

This loses marks as it leads to rule of law and parliamentary essay waffle , vagueness and generalisation . As you've read above, another common pitfall is to focus too much on the surface features of the text you are writing about. This happens when you write at length about the meaning of the text, i.e. by telling what happens in it. In effect, all you are doing when you do this is to retell the essay story of the text. You need to be discussing how and thesis, why the software author has created an effective text through careful, interesting and effective choices of of law, style and language as well as structure . M ore marks are lost if you forget the need to support the points you make in each paragraph. A good idea is to try to use at grader software least one quotation - or reference to the text - per paragraph. Remember, too, that this is an English essay and this means you need to rule of law and parliamentary sovereignty essay reflect how authors use language and grader software, literary techniques in Process, effective ways in their writing . Aim only to choose quotations that contain important elements in grader software, them that will allow you to how my homework discuss in depth aspects of, for example, their literary style , language or structure. Consider discussing, for example, how the essay grader software quotation acts to build tension , mood , character , a sense of place or how it helps explore one of the text's themes . Discuss, too, how the quotation works both at the point it occurs and as a contribution to the whole , i.e. the way it helps the writer achieve his or her purpose . This means you need to discuss aspects of the quotation such as its effectiveness - which means discussing aspects of language , structure and style . 1. DEVELOP A STRONG INITIAL FOCUS FOR YOUR ESSAY. The word 'essay' comes from a French word meaning 'attempt': your essay is your attempt to paper argue for your point of view , a view that when succinctly expressed is called a thesis statement . This 'thesis statement' needs to be an idea you developed based on an interpretation of grader software, whatever aspect of the text is rule of law and parliamentary, asked in the essay question. Interpretation means considering how a text operates at different levels ; it is software, your interpretation of the text that will be at the heart of the how my homework essay: an essay software interpretation that must supports the overall thesis statement. 2. FIND SOLID SUPPORT FOR YOUR VIEWPOINT.

You will need to search through the text and note down a series of aspects and quotations that can be used to support the overall view you have developed. Use 'post-it notes' to paper impact help with this or write the aspects/quotations down separately. Choose aspects or quotations that you can analyse successfully for grader software, the methods used , effects created and purpose intended . 3. WRITE AN EFFECTIVE OPENING PARAGRAPH. Use your introductory paragraph to state your point of view , i.e. Sovereignty Essay! your thesis statement. The purpose of your opening paragraph is to make clear your thesis statement - response to essay grader software the essay question: that is, to explain the focus of your argument - your main idea or point of how my homework, view. Stated clearly at the opening to your essay, this shows how you intend to answer the essay question and essay software, what general direction your essay will take.

Following your thesis statement, it's a good idea to add a little more detail that acts to Process 'preview' each of the major points that you will cover in essay, the body of the essay. Impact! This opening paragraph will then act to show - succinctly - where you stand regarding the software questions and how you intend to answer it. Importantly, in the opening paragraph of your essay you will also need to write an overview of the research paper impact text, one that gives a succinct summary of the ' big picture ' of the grader software text; importantly, too, of course, this must be focused on the requirements of the essay question. Giving a succinct account of the big picture of the text in the opening paragraph will show that you have engaged with and digested the detail of three key aspects of the essay: the essay question, the text and its author - perhaps also, a brief account of the author's context . Giving an overview suggests a confident approach and is a hallmark of the best essays. TIP: It is always impressive to incorporate into your own sentences, using quotation marks of course, a short suitable quotation taken from the text. Some teachers call this using embedded quotations. Keep all references to the biographical background of the The Research Process author and any aspects of his or her context entirely relevant to the essay question and - brief! Remember that this is not a history or a sociology essay so very few marks are awarded for this kind of background information (although that does not mean it might not be useful). The majority of marks in an English essay are awarded for the quality of grader, analysis and interpretation you show - that is, an awareness of the author's uses of the English language and of law sovereignty, literary uses of essay, this. If your essay title does concern aspects of profits essays, context try hard to discuss context by deriving your comments from essay grader quotations rather than by merely discussing aspects of context; in other words allow the text to introduce the context.

TIP: avoid making simplistic and irrelevant value judgments of the text or its author. Saying that Shakespeare is 'a wonderful author' or that you think 'Of Mice and ethics profits essays, Men' is grader, 'really good' will gain no marks whatsoever - this is no more than a kind of waffle that fills space with empty words that add nothing useful to your essay. 4. USE THE REMAINING PARAGRAPHS EFFECTIVELY. Follow the The Research opening paragraph with a number of paragraphs that form the 'body' of the essay. Essay Software! Each of these paragraphs are there purely to impact expand on and support your originally stated overall viewpoint. Having stated your main idea in your opening paragraph, now you need explore this, develop it and provide support from the text for this. In the essay's body paragraphs your aim is to: follow the analysis system called P.E.E. or P.Q.C. For more on this see here ; work through the text's structure logically and, highlighting via the use of quotations, explain how these led you to develop your point of view; comment on how the language of each of these parts led you to form your interpretation: why did the author choose this particular type of language to make this point in this way?

How does it help a) the audience and b) the writer's purpose or theme ? discuss how this individual part of the text forms a useful structural part of the text by leading the reader towards an essay overall understanding of the themes, messages or purposes of the text; CRUCIALLY. each paragraph needs to develop a separate and individual point - one that will help to show how different parts and aspects of the text helped you develop your interpretation and summary response essay, viewpoint (this is the POINT part of P.E.E.); A useful tip is to open each paragraph with a topic sentence . This is a sentence that clearly makes a point that is developing your argument - your answer to essay grader the essay question - and, because it is, therefore, clearly focused on the essay question, it will keep your writing on track; Always aim to provide support for each of the points you make by referring directly to research impact the text (this is the essay grader EXAMPLE part of P.E.E.). You normally do this by how my homework quoting briefly from a relevant part of the text but you might choose to describe an event. It's very important NOT to write a long description of WHAT happens. If you do you are merely 'retelling the story' - this loses many marks.

In a play you also lose marks if you do not discuss aspects of the essay software staging and stage action. You will need to follow each quotation with an Process explanation of and essay, a discussion on aspects of the language the author used in the quotation; this means discussing, for example, how aspects of the The Research Process quotations literary, poetic or dramatic language works, including mentioning the method the writer used, the effect the language creates and essay, the reasons this might have been done (this is the EXPLAIN part of P.E.E). You should also aim to show how the quotation helped you develop your overall interpretation of the text (this is also the EXPLAIN part of P.E.E). 5. CREATE A LOGICAL STRUCTURE. Always work in a clear way through the text, from beginning to end.

Avoid starting your essay by discussing a point that occurs half way through your text: ALWAYS begin at the beginning! Many students begin discussing a text half way through or even near the Process end then go back to an earlier point. This ignores the grader software work the writer puts in to develop an effective structure to their text - and loses marks! 6. CONCLUDE EFFECTIVELY. The conclusion to an essay is important but causes problems for rule essay, many students. It should leave your reader with a pleasant and essay, logical sense of 'closure' - a 'wrapping up' of the main ideas behind the research essay . 1. Re-state in essay, a different form (using rather different words) your opening argument. 2. Now bring together your main points (again, avoiding simple repetition of the same words): list or summarise the main points from the preceding paragraphs (use the topic sentences from each paragraph to give you an idea). 3. End by identifying some of the wider implications and relevance that arise from what you have found and explored.

The conclusion should consist of just a few sentences but these will need to be made to sound convincing and authoritative . It's crucial to keep the conclusion brief and to essay the point and, above all else, to introduce no new material at all. ALWAYS WRITE ANALYTICALLY , NEVER DESCRIPTIVELY. Here is an example of grader software, how many students go wrong; don't worry, you won't - but this is a very common mistake: In William Shakespeare's play, 'Romeo and Juliet', these are the The Research first two lines of the 'Prologue' as spoken by 'The Chorus': 'Two households, both alike in dignity, In fair Verona, where we lay our scene. ' What follows is a typical 'retelling': an 'overview' or 'translation' that gains no marks : 'Here, Shakespeare is saying that the software play is how my homework, set in Verona where there are two dignified families.' Compare the above 'description' with this analytical and essay grader, insightful interpretation : 'The opening lines of the Prologue are important because they paint a picture for the audience of what could and how my homework, should be - fairness and essay grader software, dignity. These words set up a powerful contrast to what is: the violence, hatred and bloodshed shown in the coming scene. It will be against this violent backdrop that the pure love of Romeo and Juliet will have to struggle.'

Which approach and style would gain the higher mark? STUCK FOR WHAT TO WRITE ABOUT? THERE ARE FOUR KEY ASPECTS THAT APPLY TO ALL TEXTS AND WHICH SHOULD FORM THE BASIS OF ANY LITERATURE ESSAY. FORM, CONTENT, STRUCTURE AND STYLE. This is so very often ignored despite the fact that it provides the basis for the very best essays because it provides a subtle response. And subtlety always receives the highest marks ! When you write about a text at the level of paper, its form , you analyse how aspects of it other than the meaning of its language have been used by the writer in important and effective ways. To give you an idea of the importance of form to a text, you yourself make use of the form of essay software, language when you speak loudly or softly , or when you chat or text a friend and The Research Process, use CAPS LOCK. Also, when you create short or long sentences or paragraphs you are affecting the look - the form - of your writing. This, albeit subtly, affects the way the writing is received and interpreted.

A novelist makes use of form by essay software writing in sentences and strong essay, paragraphs of varying lengths (you can imagine the effect a very short sentence, or a one-line paragraph, for example). The use of dialogue (spoken words shown inside speech marks) is essay grader software, also an The Research effective use of form, as is the use of underlining , bold or italics - or, in non-fiction texts, the inclusion of bullet points or sections. Poets are acutely aware of and very creative with the use of form. A poet makes use of form, for example, by consciously splitting up sentences into the lines of poetry . This allows the poet to exaggerate a particular word by placing it at the end of a line, or by rhyming it with a similar sounding word. A non-fiction writer makes use of form by using layout and appearance and by adding illustrations and photographs , and so on. All writers use form by using patterns of sound , such as by using alliteration , rhyme , rhythm , onomatopoeia , assonance and so on. A playwright, of course, uses form very differently.

When your essay concerns a play, therefore, you'll definitely be losing marks if you ignore aspects of form. Grader! In a play, much of the 'meaning' is created not from language but from what you see happening on the stage - the rule and parliamentary staging and stage action. This includes not just what the actors do but what they wear , where they stand and so on - all potentially important formal aspects of the play that should find their way onto your essay. Form is always worthy of comment when (but only when ) if it adds usefully to the meaning, i.e. the content of a text. Every word and phrase has a literal meaning . This is its basic dictionary meaning. It's sometimes called a word's denotation . E.g. 'In this story, the author's detailed description of darkness denotes the coming on grader software, of a storm'. This is a way of 'playing' around with a word's meaning that makes writing more vivid , emotional and ethics, interesting . Grader Software! Words and phrases can be used differently from their literal context and given what is summary strong response essay, called a connotation . Using connotation or figurative language , a writer can introduce layers of meaning - especially emotional meaning (don't forget that many words can create both meaning and grader, feeling ). The most common way this is done is to thesis on alopecia use a word not for its literal meaning but for essay grader, its metaphorical or figurative meaning.

Another way is to on alopecia use a word that acts as symbolically and represents something very different from its literal meaning. E.g. 'As well as suggesting the coming of a storm, the darkness also acts to suggest a metaphorical darkness is essay software, taking over research the character's mind. In this way the darkness seems to essay grader be symbolising a kind of evil'. Using a pun - a witty play on words - is another way that meaning can be played with in an interesting way. Punning works because some words, in a certain context, can have an ambiguous meaning - two possible meanings - one of which might be humorous. Irony is a key way that writers use to create layers of meaning.

Sarcasm is irony, but this is a spoken form of irony that is intended to hurt someone's feelings by ridiculing some aspect of them. It's a crude, easy kind of irony not really subtle enough for writing. Irony is usually subtle , sophisticated , edgy and witty ; an ethics essays altogether more intelligent use of language. But irony can also be difficult to recognise - yet it is probably true to say that irony is one of the grader software most common means by how my homework which a sophisticated writer creates layers of meaning in a text . Irony works because when it is essay grader, recognised, it engages the reader very much more closely with the text. This is rule of law and parliamentary sovereignty essay, because, rather like solving a puzzle, there is a real enjoyment and satisfaction in unpicking the various levels of meaning created by the irony. Creating an 'ironic tone of voice' in writing is much harder than in essay, speech because the original sound of voice and The Research Process, facial expression or body language of the speaker are absent. To create an ironic tone (or any tone, for that matter), words have to be chosen with great care. Essay! It is The Research Process, a key reading skill to be able to detect this as it tells you what attitude the writer is essay grader software, taking towards their subject matter. An example of irony occurs in an old story by O. Henry called 'The Gift of the Magi'. This story of poor young lovers ends with the boyfriend selling the one thing he owns of value, his pocket watch, in order to buy his girlfriend an expensive hair comb; equally secretly, she has all of paper, her long hair cut off to essay sell to a wig maker so she can afford to strong response buy him. Software! a chain for summary response essay, his watch.

Structure is the way a writer consciously 'shapes' a piece of writing in an attempt to make it as effective as possible for their audience and their purpose. It is essay grader, important to comment on the structure of a text, e.g. 'The way the author slowly builds up the tension throughout this chapter helps create a feeling of real excitement and mystery'. Style is the way a writer or speaker consciously chooses language and language features to suit a particular audience to achieve a specific purpose . When you aim to convince your mum that Friday's party cannot be missed, you will consciously adapt your style to one that is research impact, more emotional and persuasive! Some famous writers have a particular style of their own that is quickly recognisable. John Steinbeck, Charles Dickens and William Wordsworth are three such writers - here, a writer's individual style is sometimes referred to as the writer's 'voice'. Your primary job when analysing and discussing a text is to comment on its style - on what are called the stylistic or language choices its writer has made, especially those that seem to grader you to have been chosen to on alopecia create a particular effect to achieve a certain purpose. So. if you are commenting on software, the form and content of a writer's language, you are commenting on the writer's style . COMPARING TWO OR MORE TEXTS. Even though it's a central part of the mark scheme, and always made clear in the essay question or title, each year many students still manage to write their comparison exam answer or coursework essay and essays, forget to compare and contrast the texts . Aside from not knowing the essay grader texts sufficiently well, failing to essay compare and contrast is the number one reason marks are lost in this kind of essay.

When writing about more than one text, your opening paragraph should be used to give the briefest details of each text (i.e. Essay Software! your writing needs to be succinct !). This will mean being even more careful and sparing when you write an overview of each text, in research paper, which you give the big picture . There are two methods you can consider using when comparing texts: 1) Write about the first text fully before moving on to the second - still using the techniques outlined above; but when you go on to write about the second text, you must compare and contrast it with the first. 2) Alternatively, and this makes the most sense when thinking about the argument essay, you write about both texts as you proceed . This allows you still, as shown above, to create a central argument , one in which examples to essay grader software support the points are taken from one or both texts as relevant to the point. This second method is the The Research more complex and sophisticated of the two.

Laboratory and Lab Safety Signs, Symbols and Their Meanings. Susan is a science geek, and grader software if that wasn't enough, she gets all nerdy over technology too. She is rule of law, also a writer too. Did you ever come across laboratory signs or symbols but did not know what they meant? Or perhaps you would like to see pictures of all the various signs you would see in a laboratory and on chemicals. In this hub, I will be giving you a detailed description of each laboratory sign or symbol and a photograph so you can easily identify it.

Signs around the world may come differently, the signs in this hub are used internationally. Even if the sign is essay software, not exactly like the signs here but has the how my homework same symbols imprinted on it, then you can be sure that that is the symbol. The author of this article claims no responsibility to any accidents that happen in the laboratory. Essay Grader Software! Always consult a scientist working in a laboratory when dealing with chemicals. A laboratory is a place where dangerous events can occur, from high voltage stations to biohazards to corrosive substances. Many people are unaware of the dangers lurking in ethics profits essays a laboratory! To alert you of essay grader, hazards such as biohazards and high voltage stations, there are hazard signs placed in laboratories. You will very commonly find hazard signs in a laboratory, alerting you to various hazards you are expected to research paper find. However, many people may not be able to essay grader software identify what these hazard symbols mean.

To help you get aware of the various meanings associated with each sign, this guide has been compiled to help you do so. In this guide, there are two sections. Process! One section which we will deal with first, is about signs that you can be expected to find on the walls of a laboratory workplace. The second will deal with signs you can be expected to find on various chemicals and even, household substances. This symbol means that you have to wear gloves in protection from harmful chemicals or other materials. It is recommended to always wear gloves when dealing with caustic substances and other dangerous chemicals. Grader! Most hospitals and laboratories have plastic glove dispensers, so wear gloves before you enter a hospital laboratory and other chemical analysis laboratories. To stay safe, you can wear gloves at and parliamentary sovereignty essay all times in a laboratory if you wish, to protect you from chemicals. Biohazards are microorganisms which can potentially harm or even kill living organisms.

These microorganisms can include viruses, contagious and dangerous bacteria, toxins and harmful microorganisms. You will very commonly find a sign like this in grader biochemistry laboratories in hospitals as scientists and rule of law laboratory technicians working there would have to analyse samples from patients in the hospitals. These samples may contain highly contagious bacteria which may potentially threaten the health of the scientist. If you ever see this sign, always ask a scientist working in the laboratory about such biohazards. Essay! It is recommended that you always wear a face mask and anti-bacterial gloves when dealing with such substances.

You may also see this sign on the packaging of hypodermic needles, samples and living tissues to be analysed. Rule Sovereignty! It is grader software, common etiquette for impact, scientists to dispose of essay software, hypodermic needles in a sharps container. This sign, 'high voltage' means voltage at ethics profits essays such a high level that if any living organism comes in contact with the electricity, the grader electricity will cause harm or even death. This sign is found in industrial sites and perhaps laboratories. Always stay clear of thesis, areas marked with this sign as coming in contact with the electricity will mean serious injury or death. Many people ask how many volts 'high voltage' is grader, considered to thesis on alopecia be. Software! The answer to this question remains debated but in electric power transmission, it is said to summary response essay be 35,000 volts.

The IET say that high voltage is over 1000 volts. Essay Software! In industrial sites, workers protect themselves by ethics, wearing plastic gloves and other clothing. This sign means that you have access to a defibrillator nearby. This can be seen in hospitals, some laboratories and software industrial areas. This sign warns you that the equipment and summary essay apparatus beside you may be extremely hot and can severely burn you. Essay Grader! This sign can be found in laboratories with hot plates to industrial areas with hot machines and steam pipes. If you see this sign on a piece of thesis on alopecia, apparatus, do not touch, you will get severely burned! This sign indicates very low temperatures, much lower than freezing point.

You may find this sign in chemical storage areas, for storing liquid nitrogen and other chemicals. Do not enter these areas without the supervision of a scientist and without appropriate protection. This sign indicates the location of an eye wash station. If you accidentally place foreign chemicals or substances into software, your eyes, always try to locate an eye wash station immediately! Although some eye wash station signs may look different, always try to locate the station if there is no sign. A typical eye wash station looks like the research impact picture on the right, and contains two bottles of eye wash. Eye wash is a fluid which contains saline. Grader! Saline aids the rinsing of the rule of law and parliamentary sovereignty eye and provides relief.

However, if you do get foreign chemicals in your eyes, always go to your hospital immediately! The chemicals that entered your eye could be corrosive and could cause permanent blindness! The term 'laser' stands for software, 'Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Paper Impact! It is usually a direct beam of light in grader one colour. The colour of the laser is determined by how my homework, its wavelength, the unit being a 'nanometer'. The light can be forced into software, one narrow beam which has a high radiant power per unit area. Because of how my homework, this, the laser is very powerful enabling it to essay software cut metal, seal objects and is used in The Research Process surgical procedures. That is why you will find laser beams in factories, hospitals and essay software surgical theatres. As harmless as a laser may seem, that is not quite the case. Ethics Profits Essays! Letting your skin to come in direct contact with a laser beam can be very dangerous and can have some disastrous consequences.

The eye is the essay software most susceptible and can be damaged the easiest. If you wear no eye protection, looking at Process a laser beam can cause retinal damage, leading to essay grader damage to the eye, which can cause blindness or partial blindness. Always wear appropriate eye wear, always check with the owner of the equipment which eye wear is best. Damage to the skin can also be caused if not protected. Wear protective non-flammable clothing. Laser beams can also cause fire so do not direct at any flammable substances!

Recognising hazard laboratory signs in a laboratory is only one part, but recognising hazard signs on chemicals and research impact other substances is another part. Many chemicals in a laboratory are harmful. Essay Software! They could irritate your skin, be dangerous to the environment, corrosive or toxic. That is why hazard symbols were invented, to The Research alert you of the various dangers associated with each chemical. Material Data Safety Sheets can also be obtained about each chemical, but if you want to know quickly which chemicals are harmful and which are not, check the packaging. Software! The signs on rule of law and parliamentary essay, the packaging can tell you whether a chemical is irritant or toxic.

This sign indicates a drop of software, a corrosive substance falling onto a hand and burning into the hand. The word corrosive comes from the strong Latin word 'corrodere' meaning to gnaw. Letting a corrosive substance come in direct contact with your skin can cause the essay grader substance to eat into your flesh, down to thesis the bone. Not pleasant! Also, if your eyes come in contact with a corrosive material they will be permanently damaged leaving you with blindness. An example of a corrosive substance is caustic soda, which is mainly used in soap and draining sewage areas.

If you see this sign on grader software, any chemical, aways handle with extreme care and wear gloves and how my homework face protection! This is a substance which may harm or kill natural species living in the environment including aquatic species, trees and grader software plants. Throwing a substance with this sign into The Research Process, a lake or drainage system is not recommended, it could harm or even kill fish in the lakes, trees and grader plants or other animals. A substance which is how my homework, dangerous to grader software the environment is white spirit, which is used to clean paint from objects. This is a substance which can be ignited easily when they come near a source of paper impact, fuel and grader software burn very vigorously. Always be careful when handling substances like these! This symbol is profits essays, denoted by a large black X on essay grader, an orange background which has an 'I' on The Research, the bottom right corner.

The word irritant means that it will cause your skin to turn red and may blister. Whilst irritant substances may not cause too much damage, it is essay grader software, still advisable to wear gloves. There is response essay, another symbol which has a black X on an orange background and has no 'I' in the bottom right corner. This symbol means that the substance is 'harmful'. by Joel Diffendarfer 8.

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by Edmund Custers 434. The 5 Main Differences Between Alligators and essay grader software Crocodiles. by Paul Goodman 36. Thank you. I have learn a lot and research paper impact also It make my project wonderful. WhoTheHellAreYou 12 days ago. i am going to say Thank You in essay grader software 4 languages:

This is great! dab on them haters! this web site helped me a lot with my assignment. I was actually looking for the radiation sign but this is a very good website for other sign. NICK CROMPTON 2 weeks ago. England is profits essays, my city.

Georgia wing 2 weeks ago. Thank you so much this web site was last minute exsam helper thank you once again xx ;) i learn a lot on essay grader, this web side we do this kind of work in school. doesn't have all the things I need try putting things like toxic, oxidising, explosive and harmful but it really helped me in my homework. Thanks.. bescause my damn teacher made a test without telling us and its all about symbols.. follow me on facebook kent perez. Thank you, for i had to paper study different symbols and essay grader this webpage worked as my last minute helper. thanks but this did not help at all. choco_chipzy 3 months ago. This helps so much in my homework!

Thank you! Llyne Barts 012 3 months ago. Hehe. Impact! Thanks for the information. Really helpful. Keep it up. what is the difference between the symbol of irritant and harmful??

bre2cute I think ur talking about biohazard. Solomon Desta 4 months ago. It would have been more useful if you write it separately for each departments labs. Very helpful it helped me do my assignment and educational. So helpful ,it helped me with my assignment.

Seailtoynup 9 months ago. Thank you !! This really helped me for my assignment. really helped me with knowing symbols thanks. Charlene wooten 9 months ago. What's a 0301-laboratory, chemistry what does it envoy mentioned contains and a laboratory, hematology 0305 can someone please explain to me what this means preferences from essay grader a doctor. Suresh Kumar Mandal 10 months ago.

I am working in a Chemical Laboratory. So I really got the knowledge after read this topic. kawaiicat777 10 months ago. it helped me with my homework but it needs more sighns :) its supper for me to learn n0w that i now all the signs. Vibekananda champati 11 months ago. Good ! but more symbols should be added. pretty good but u should put what to do in rule of law and parliamentary essay case of an accident. I'm so glad to have found this! I am doing research for a design quiz and this helped me so much - there isn't very much comprehensible information about safety signs online WITH information.

So THANK YOU! wajid iqbal 13 months ago. awesome bundle of essay grader software, thanks. wow its is amesome. wow it was awesome ,but it need to be more explained and research paper also need more signs because new signs have been brought out. I love this website. hi it need more pictures so pls add more. Thanks it helped me a lot for my assignment. it was really really helpful thank you very much. it helped a lot but need more signs with xplanation. It helped a lot.

But it would be better with more signs in it. Thanks a lot it has helped a lot.wow. it awesome! Susan W 2 years ago from The British Isles, Europe. Melanie - Thanks so much for reading this and the awesome comments. :D I agree, it's really important to know this, whether a scientist or not. There are so many home products that have these signs, and most people don't even look at them! Melanie Shebel 2 years ago from New Buffalo, Michigan. Wow! This is grader, such a helpful hub. I worked as a TA in a lab and have friends that do the thesis on alopecia same. We have to learn this and the students do too (although they often lack interest.) It's really important stuff! Thanks for essay software, the nice blog,really appreciated it.

thank you. really a big help. . Summary Strong! thank you for this,. it will help me in the laboratory.. thanks.it'was so helpful. Susan W 2 years ago from The British Isles, Europe. Jao - I'm the author, so if you have any questions just ask me. Thanks for grader, the read and for rule sovereignty essay, commenting. It's always appreciated! :-) i need the author of this, can you help me? sophia ellis 2 years ago.

owesome this really good , it really helped me THANKS. thx for putting this out if you didn't well i ll be dead. Thank you very much i am a Chemical Lab Analyst it has really made me to software understand well the signs and its meaning. this blog makes my assignment very good. Its really helpful for me thnku sooo much. Obuekwe Emeka 3 years ago.

Thanks a lot, this is research, really gonna help in my MCB 315 Assignment. Life Saver. Whew. i got laboratory sign meaning. this really answer my question. you helped me a lot but there is one i am trying to find and i can't find it. its good but needs more photos and software the explanations art a little too long can u shorten them a little im a teacher and ethics profits essays the kids wont really understand those long things. Susan W 4 years ago from The British Isles, Europe. Thanks for commenting and giving such positive comments! I am glad you liked this hub!

Zara Thompson 4 years ago from New York. Really appreciative ,thank you so much for your blog. Firoz 4 years ago from India. Really helped me. Voted up. Copyright 2017 HubPages Inc. and respective owners. Other product and grader company names shown may be trademarks of on alopecia, their respective owners. HubPages ® is a registered Service Mark of HubPages, Inc.

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